1. Template ID: sapphire Size: 24x48 Guns Prohibited Images Prime Aggressive Thoughts Arlin James Benjamin, Jr., 1 Meagan Crosby 1, and Brad J. Bushman 2 1 Department of Psychology, University of Arkansas-Fort Smith 2 Department of Communication and Psychology, The Ohio State University and Department of Communication Science, VU University Amsterdam Abstract Method Results Conclusion The current experiment examined the effects of guns-prohibited images on aggressive thoughts. The results showed that participants in both the guns- prohibited image and gun image conditions completed a higher proportion of aggressive words than those in the neutral image condition, F(2,90) = 3.44, p <.04. Introduction General Aggression Model References Starting with the pioneering work of Berkowitz & LePage (1967), there is converging evidence from numerous experiments that weapons increase aggressive behavior (see Carlson, Marcus-Newhall, & Miller, 1990, for an early review of the literature). A recent meta-analysis by Benjamin & Bushman (under review) found that the weapons effect occurs regardless of provocation level, weapon type, or research setting, and occurs regardless of gender or age of participants. According to the General Aggression Model (Anderson & Bushman, 2002), the weapons effect occurs because the mere presence of weapons primes aggressive cognitions. Early support for that hypothesis came from two experiments demonstrating a weapons priming effect in the 1990s (see Anderson, Benjamin, & Bartholow, 1998). Since then, the weapons priming effect has been shown to be robust (e.g., Subra, Muller, Bègue, Bushman, & Delmas, 2010). Recently the question of the potential for guns-prohibited signs (that is, signs showing guns with strikeouts) to prime aggression has been posed. On the one hand, such signage involves gun imagery, and ample data exist demonstrating that even mere images of guns can facilitate aggression (see Benjamin & Bushman, under review). However, we also know from prior research that the extent to which weapons prime aggressive behavior or aggressive cognitions depends on how individuals interpret the images (see, e.g., Bartholow, Anderson, Carnagey, & Benjamin, 2005; Leyens, Cisneros, & Hossay, 1976). The present research compared the priming effects of images of weapons and images prohibiting weapons on aggressive cognitions in order to examine the extent, if any, that the meaning of an image might play. After viewing the image, participants rated its overall quality (1=low to 7=high). Note that although this rating was to maintain our cover story, we did treat the ratings as a potential covariate in our analyses. Next, participants were given 3 minutes to complete as many word fragments as possible on a word completion task. The word completion task consists of 98 fragments, 50 of which can form aggressive words (see Anderson, Carnagey, Flanagan, Benjamin, Eubanks, & Valentine, 2004). For example, the word fragment K I _ _ can be completed as an aggressive word (e.g., KILL, KICK) or as a nonaggressive word (e.g., KIND, KITE). Finally, participants completed a brief demographic questionnaire. After the experiment was completed, participants were debriefed and dismissed. Anderson, C. A., Benjamin, A. J., Jr., & Bartholow, B. D. (1998). Does the gun pull the trigger? Automatic priming effects of weapon pictures and weapon names. Psychological Science, 9, 308-314. Anderson, C. A. & Bushman, B. J. (2002). Human aggression. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 27-51. Anderson, C. A., Carnagey, N. L., Flanagan, M., Benjamin, A. J., Eubanks, J., & Valentine, J. C. (2004). Violent video games: Specific effects of violent content on aggressive thoughts and behavior. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 36, 199-249. Bartholow, B. D., Anderson, C. A., Carnagey, N. L., & Benjamin, A. J., Jr. (2005). Interactive effects of life experience and situational cues on aggression: The weapons priming effect in hunters and non-hunters. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 41, 48-60. Benjamin, A. J., Jr., & Bushman, B. J. (under review). Effects of weapons on aggressive thoughts, angry feelings, hostile appraisals, and aggressive behavior: A meta-analytic review of the weapons effect literature. Berkowitz, L., & LePage, A. (1967). Weapons as aggression-eliciting stimuli. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 7, 202–207. Carlson, M., Marcus-Newhall, A., & Miller, N. (1990). Effects of situational aggression cues: A quantitative review. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 622-633. Holbrook, C., Galperin, A., Fessler, D. M. T., Johnson, K. L., Bryant, G. A., & Haselton, M. G. (2014). If looks could kill: Anger attributions are intensified by affordances for doing harm. Emotion, 14, 455-461. Leyens, J. P., Cisneros, T., & Hossay, J. F. (1976). Decentration as a means for reducing aggression after exposure to violent stimuli. European Journal of Psychology, 6, 459-473. Subra, B., Muller, D., Bègue, L., Bushman, B. J., & Delmas, F. (2010). Automatic effects of alcohol and weapon cues on aggressive thoughts and behaviors. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 36(8), 1052-1057. DOI: 10.1177/0146167210374725 Three hypotheses were tested H1: An image of a gun will prime a higher proportion of aggressive words than a neutral image. H2: An image of a gun with a strikeout will prime a higher proportion of aggressive words than a neutral image. H3: There will be no difference in the proportion of aggressive words primed by the image gun and the image of a gun with a strikeout. Participants were 93 undergraduate students (59% female, M age = 22.5, SD = 8.4) who received extra course credit. After informed consent was obtained, participants were told the researchers were studying image quality and speed of processing. First, they were given one minute to view one of three images: a gun, a gun with a strikeout, or a flower. Proportion of Aggressive Words Completed Across Priming Condition Priming imageMSDn Gun.192 a.06431 Gun with strikeout.186 a.09432 Neutral.147 b.05130 The findings offer the first demonstration that the images found on guns prohibited signage (i.e., guns with strikeouts) prime aggressive cognitions to the same extent as do gun images. These findings are consistent with the current weapons effect literature regarding cognitive priming effects (e.g., Anderson, Benjamin, & Bartholow, 1998; Subra et al., 2010; see Benjamin & Bushman, under review, for a more complete discussion). The presence of the strikeout with the gun image does not decenter, but rather facilitates aggressive cognitions. The addition of the strikeout may merely reinforce the perception of gun image as a threat (see Holbrook et al., 2014), thus facilitating a search of aggression-related concepts in long-term memory. Given the proliferation of guns prohibited signage, and the perceived need for such signage in the first place, our research has potential policy implications. As with any initial experiment, the findings should be considered preliminary pending further replication. Questions regarding the extent for guns-prohibited imagery to prime aggressive behavior, as well facilitate more favorable attitudes towards guns and hostile attributions have yet to be addressed. The behavioral experiment is currently being planned.