1. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Flight Operations Chapter 27 Navigation Aids

2. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-1. VOR display and NAV-COM controller.

3. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-2. A radial is a magnetic bearing outbound from a VOR ground station.

4. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-3. A VOR ground station.

5. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-4. VOR antennas.

6. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-5. The VOR transmits two VHF signals with a phase difference between them.

7. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-6. VHF line-of-sight signals.

8. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-7. A VOR and its radials represented on a sectional chart.

9. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-8. The VOR cockpit display (OBI) for airplanes on the 015 radial.

10. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-9. Course deviation in 2° increments.

11. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-10. Each of these airplanes is displaced 6° from the 070 radial.

12. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-11. Using the TO/FROM flag.

13. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-12. RMI needle 1 indicating NDB; RMI needle 2 indicating VOR.

14. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-13. The horizontal situation indicator is always a command instrument.

15. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-14. Tracking using an HSI.

16. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-15. Logbook with VOR check.

17. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-16. Example 27-1: on the 154 radial.

18. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-17. Fixing position requires two position lines with a good intersection.

19. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-18. Fixing position using two VORs.

20. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-19. Fixing position at TRUCK using a co-located VOR and DME.

21. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-20. Fixing position over a VOR.

22. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-21. Passing abeam a VOR.

23. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-22. Principle of bearing change triangle.

24. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-23. Sample calculation.

25. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-24. Using the CDI and the TO/FROM flag for orientation without moving the omni bearing selector.

26. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-25. The airplane is in the quadrant away from the CDI and TO/FROM flag.

27. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-26. The airplane is between the 355 and 265 radials.

28. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-27. The RMI indicates 043 to the VOR.

29. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-28. Using the CDI as a command instrument (by following its commands).

30. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-29. Tracking inbound and allowing for drift.

31. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-30. Tracking inbound through a wind change.

32. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-31. Using the CDI as a command instrument (example 27-8).

33. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-32. Use the CDI as a command instrument.

34. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-33. For ease of operation, use the CDI as a command instrument.

35. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-34. A correctly tuned ADF indicates the direction of the selected NDB from the aircraft.

36. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-35. Flying to a station is straightforward.

37. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-36. Flying away from a station requires further information than just the needle on the tail.

38. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-37. Periodically realign the HI with the magnetic compass in steady flight.

39. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-38. A diagrammatic representation.

40. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-39. To be really useful for navigation, the ADF/NDB combination needs support from a magnetic compass (or from a HI).

41. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-39. Flying toward, over, and past an NDB, and then on to the next one.

42. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-40. NDB transmission antennas.

43. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Table 27-1. NDB SSV radii.

44. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-41. Typical NDB idents.

45. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-42. The airborne ADF equipment.

46. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-43. Typical ADF control panel.

47. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-44. The RBI or fixed-card ADF shows relative bearings.

48. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-45. A fixed-card ADF is a relative bearing indicator (RBI).

49. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-47. A pictorial (albeit clumsy) method of finding MB.

50. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-48. A rotatable-card ADF.

51. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-49. Using a rotatable-card ADF.

52. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-50. The HSI is an RMI with a superimposed course deviation indicator (CDI).

53. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-51. The RMI compass card remains aligned with magnetic north.

54. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-52. The RMI compass card is driven by a fluxvalve and a gyroscope.

55. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-53. An indicator with two needles.

56. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-54. The manually rotatable ADF card.

57. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-55. Orientation with an RMI is quite straightforward.

58. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-56. Typical radio magnetic indicators (courtesy Allied Signal Aerospace).

59. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-57. A radio position line (left) and a visual position line.

60. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-58. Two lines of position with a good “cut” can provide a fix.

61. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-59. Magnetic heading MH 015; relative bearing RB 075.

62. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-60. Finding true bearing from an NDB.

63. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-61. Quadrants for converting relative bearings to magnetic bearings.

64. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-62. Example 27-13: MH 340 + 10 off the nose = MB 350.

65. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-63. Visualizing position on the HI; MH 070 and MB 330.

66. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-64. Changing heading alters relative bearing.

67. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-65. Typical heading and ADF indications.

68. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-66. Visualizing: Where am I? Where do I want to go? How do I get there?

69. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-67. Visualizing an intercept on the HI.

70. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-68. Paralleling course to help in visualization.

71. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-69. Visualizing the intercept.

72. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-70. An inefficient intercept of course.

73. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-71. Different intercepts of course.

74. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-72. Intercepting MC 340 inbound from the south of the station.

75. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-73. Visualizing course on an RMI.

76. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-74. Intercepting course at 90°, 60°, or 45°.

77. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-75. Radar vector 340 to intercept MC 280 outbound.

78. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-76. Intercepting 280 outbound off radar vector 340.

79. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-77. Tracking inbound, with no crosswind.

80. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-78. Crosswind causes drift.

81. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-79. Tracking direct to the NDB.

82. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-80. Laying off drift to achieve the desired course.

83. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-81. An incorrect wind correction angle causes MB to change.

84. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-82. Drift is the angle between heading and ground track.

85. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-83. Needle head falling right; turn right.

86. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-84. Regain the desired course.

87. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-85. Bracketing the course Head of needle falling right—turn right. Head of needle falling left—turn left.

88. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-86. If uncertain of wind, initially steer course as heading.

89. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-87. Approaching the NDB, the ADF needle becomes more sensitive.

90. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-88. Do not overcorrect when close to the station.

91. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-89. Good ADF tracking (left); reasonable tracking (center); poor tracking (right).

92. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-90. Tracking away from an NDB with no crosswind effect.

93. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-91. Tracking away from an NDB, with a WCA of 5° into wind.

94. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-92. Tracking away from an NDB with an incorrect wind correction angle.

95. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-93. A radar traffic information service report of conflicting traffic.

96. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-94. A typical radar head.

97. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-95. Radar is the transmission of electromagnetic radio energy and the detection of some of the reflected energy back at the point of transmission.

98. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-96. SSR is two radars talking to each other.

99. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-97. Typical transponder panel.

100. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-98. Operation of the DME.

101. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-99. DME measures slant distance.

102. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-100. Passing over a DME ground station at 9,000 feet AGL.

103. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-101. A digital DME panel.

104. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-102. Using two NAVAIDs to fix a position.

105. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-103. A circular position line from a DME.

106. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-104. Fixing position with VOR and DME.

107. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-105. Electronically creating “pseudo” VORTACs.

108. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-106. Tracking between waypoints.

109. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-107. A typical RNAV display.

110. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-108. A typical LORAN set.

111. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-109. LORAN-C computes position using hyperbolas.

112. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-110. Signals from satellites are received to establish an aircraft’s position.

113. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-111. GPS and NAV management receivers.

114. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-112. The GPS consists of three basic segments.

115. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-113. The relative orbital positions of GPS satellites.

116. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-114. VHF direction finding antennas at Santa Barbara airport.

117. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-115. Tracking efficiently to a VDF ground station.

118. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-116. Question 12.

119. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-117. Question 12.

120. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-118. Question 22.

121. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-119. Questions 23 to 28.

122. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-120. Question 19.

123. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-121. Questions 31 to 33.

124. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-122. Questions 87 to 89.

125. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-123. Questions 94 to 95.

126. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-124. Questions 99 and 100.

127. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-125. Question 104.

128. © 2009 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Pilot’s Manual – Ground School Figure 27-126. Questions 111 to 112.