1. NIGERIA Part 1: The Making of the Modern State “Nigeria is not a nation. It is a mere geographical expression.” --Chief Obafemi Awolow

2. Just for Fun…  http://www.theonion.com/video/in-the-know- situation-in-nigeria-seems-pretty-comp,14171/ http://www.theonion.com/video/in-the-know- situation-in-nigeria-seems-pretty-comp,14171/

3. Why Study Nigeria?  LDC trying to democratize  History of colonialism, military rule, parliamentary democracy & presidential democracy  Ethnic/Religious/Regional Cleavages  Largest population in Africa  Federalism  Resource curse (oil)  Patron-Client Relations (Prebendalism)

4. Sovereignty, Authority, and Power  Constitutionalism – eluding Nigeria so far  First constitution in 1914  8 more since (latest in 1999)  Military and civilian leaders alike have never felt the need to obey constitutions, and often write new ones upon taking power

5. Sovereignty, Authority, and Power  Legitimacy  Newly independent (1960)  Highly fragmented along ethnic, regional, religious lines  The sole stable national institution is the military  Leads to legitimacy of military’s right to rule  Most leaders have been generals  Extremely low legitimacy of government, overall  Massive corruption, distrust of government

6. Influence of British Rule  Deepened ethnic and regional divisions  Indirect rule in the north (Muslim leaders)  Direct rule in south  Christianity  (Islam already in North from Arab traders)  Western-style education  Mostly in south (Christian missionaries)  Independence – 1960  Since then…the ”National Question”  Should we even be a country?

8. Since Independence  1960-1979 – British parliamentary style democracy  Why didn’t it work?

9. Since Independence  1960-1979 – British parliamentary style democracy  Why didn’t it work?  Ethnic divisions made it difficult to identify a majority party or allow a PM to have necessary authority

10. Since Independence  1967-70 Biafran Civil War  First military ruler, Ironsi, justified his authority by announcing his intention to end violence and stop political corruption  Killed in a coup by a 2nd general  Coup sparked the Igbo to fight for independence for their land – called Biafra  Country did remain together, but only under military rule  1979 – Presidential System  Both systems experienced frequent interruptions/periods of Military Rule –frequent coups

11. Since Independence  Other Trends  Intensification of ethnic conflict – Hausa-Fulani formed a majority coalition with Igbo, angering the Yoruba  Personalized rule and corruption  Govt revenue goes to Nigerian elite through patron-client system/prebendalism  Federalism – attempt to pacify ethnic tension, though military leaders did not allow much local power  Economic dependence on oil – enriches those in power, who ignore other sectors of the economy

12. Prebendalism  Prebendalism, the peculiarly Nigerian version of corruption, is the disbursing of public offices and state rents to one’s ethnic-based clients.” It is an extreme form of clientelism that refers to the practice of mobilizing cultural and other sectional identities by political aspirants and officeholders for the purpose of corruptly appropriating state resources. Prebendalism is an established pattern of political behavior that justifies the pursuit of and the use of public office for the personal benefit of the office holder and his clients. The official public purpose of the office becomes a secondary concern. As with clientelism, the officeholder's clients comprise a specific set of elites to which he is linked, typically by ethnic or religious ties, and this linkage is key to understanding the concept. There are thus two sides involved in prebendalism, the officeholder and the client, and expectations of benefits by the clients (or supporters) perpetuate the prebendal system.  As practiced in the Babangida and Abacha eras, when official corruption occurred on an unprecedented scale, prebendalism deepened sectional cleavages and eroded the resources of the state. It also discouraged genuinely productive activity and expanded the class of individuals who live off state patronage.

13. Economic Development  Rentier State based on oil revenue  Debt because of over-reliance on oil and corruption  1980s Nigeria was forced to turn to international organizations for help in managing its huge national debt  World Bank/International Monetary Fund helped develop economic structural adjustment program  Restructure and diversify Nigerian economy to decrease dependence on oil

14. NIGERIA Part 2: Institutions “The trouble with Nigeria is simply and squarely a failure of leadership. There is nothing basically wrong with the Nigerian character. There is nothing wrong with the Nigerian land or climate or water or air or anything else.” --Chinua Achebe

15. The Basics  Democracy (fragile)  Federal*  Territory divided into 36 federal states + federal capital territory, Abuja  Presidential  Bicameral Legislature  *Currently neither checks or balances operate, and state and local governments are totally dependent on the central government

16. The Executive  Executive – President and Cabinet  Directly elected, 4 yr term, 2 term limit  2-round/majority model  Candidate must win majority of votes cast AND at least 25% of votes cast in 2/3 of Nigeria’s states  If no candidate wins a majority in the first round, second round pits top two popular vote winners

17. The Executive  Discussion Question: Why do you think Nigeria has the requirement of winning at least 25% of votes cast in 2/3 of Nigeria’s states to move to the 2 nd round?

18. The Executive  Discussion Question: Why do you think Nigeria has the requirement of winning at least 25% of votes cast in 2/3 of Nigeria’s states to move to the 2 nd round? ›1999 Constitutional requirement ›So a purely regional candidate cannot win the presidency ›An attempt to help unify the people/country

19. The Executive  May appoint officials to all parts of national government without approval of legislature  leads to patrimonialism: system of patronage in which the president is at the top  Receives all gov’t oil and distributes some to the states as directed by law  Commands armed forces  Can veto laws passed by legislature

20. The Executive  *Current President: Goodluck Jonathan  President Elect: Mahammadu Buhari  72 year old Muslim, former military dictator!

21. The Bureaucracy  Bureaucracy – assumed to be bloated, corrupt, and inefficient  Parastatals – privately owned, but headed by government appointees (part of the patron-client network)  Provide public utilities or major industries – water, electricity, etc  State corporatism – parastatals serve to give the appearance of public/private cooperation, while really giving the state control

22. The Legislative  Legislature – parliamentary until 1979, now bicameral National Assembly  Senators and Representatives serve 4 year terms, elected the week before the president  Senate  109 Senators, 3 per state, 1 from Abuja  Very diverse given the different regions that are equally represented  House of Representatives  360 members  One of the lowest rates of female representation in legislature in the world  Very little power, but occasionally acts as a check on president (like when Obasanjo wanted a 3rd term)

23. The Judiciary  Federal and state courts with an appeals process up to the Supreme Court  Strong and autonomous after independence, but since ravaged by military rule  Most judges today are not well versed in law, easily manipulated by the government  Theoretically in charge of judicial review, not practically  Law is complicated by the sharia which operates in 12 northern states, controversially

24. The Military  Guess what? It’s strong!  Military made distinctions between “military in government” and “military in barracks” after early coups  “Military in government” presidents (like Babangida) had to restrain influence of traditional military  Appointed senior military to cabinet positions to make them part of his patronage network  The best place for young Nigerians to improve their lives, demonstrate their talents  Controversial, but it is the one national institution with the capability to restore order

25. Linkage Institutions - Political Parties  Regionally & ethnically based  Fragmented Multi-Party System  Parties appear and disappear based on leaders  Recent Parties:  People’s Democratic Party (PDP)  Most long-lasting; Obasanjo, Goodluck Jonathan  Coalition of northern and Yoruba politicians, current & former military leaders, and smaller ethnic groups in middle of country  All Progressives Congress – 2013 three opposition parties merged to challenge PDP in 2015  Buhari’s party

26. Political Parties  These parties are becoming less regional, and increasingly run a “ticket” with candidates of different regions, campaigning across all of Nigeria  Why? Because of 1999 Constitutional requirement

27. Interest Groups  Have and continue to play a role in Nigerian politics  Some based on religion:  Christian Association of Nigeria; Several Muslim organizations  Some based on professions of educated elite:  Legal professions, physicians, educators  Labor Unions  Were independent and powerful before military oppression of 1980’s  Have regained power in recent years  Nigeria Labor Congress – organized successful general strike in 2007 against elimination of gas subsidies

28. Linkage Institutions - Media  Well developed, independent press  Reflects ethnic interests/issues  TV/ Newspapers more common in urban areas  Parastatals operate over 100 stations  Privately owned TV stations/cable/satellite services  Most outspoken newspapers in South  Radio reaches all of Nigeria – all 36 states have their own – compete with private broadcasters  Cellphone service has overtaken landline  95 million cell phones/700,000 wired phones  2009 – 44 million internet users but only 1200 internet hosts

29. NIGERIA Part 3: Citizens, Society & the State

30. Citizens, Society, and the State  Necessary condition for democratization: citizens need to have time to pay attention and participate in the political process  Problem for Nigeria:  60% live in poverty  Large gap between rich and poor (Gini = 50.6)  Health issues – AIDS epidemic (1 in 11 AIDS carriers are Nigerian)  Literacy – Overall 68% (75.7% for men, 60.6% for women)

31. Cleavages  One of the most fragmented societies in the world  Ethnicity – 250 to 400 distinct ethnic groups (different languages, religion)  3 Major Ethnic Groups:  Hausa-Fulani – 29%: Muslim groups which dominate the northern half of country  Yoruba – 21%: split btw Muslim, Christian, and indigenous religions; dominate SW third of country (including Lagos)  Igbo (Ibo) – 18%: mostly Christian; live in SE oil-producing region

32. Cleavages  Religion – 50% Muslim, 40% Christian, 10% various native religions  Disputes rooted in preferential treatment British gave to Christians, role of sharia in Nigerian law

33. Cleavages  Region – North v. South  North:  Predominantly Muslim  Less educated  Poorer  Less industrialized  Poorer healthcare  South:  Predominantly Christian  More educated  Wealthier (oil reserves)

34. Cleavages  Urban/rural differences – political organizations, interest groups, media only operate in cities  Social class – Educated elite are those with ties to the state, who often use the treasury to benefit themselves

35. Civil Society  Open and Free  Mostly centered around ethnic identity and religion  Elite – private clubs and professional organizations  Soldiers and veterans belong to military support groups  NGO’s

36. Participation - Elections  Independent National Election Commission (INEC)  Created to help legitimize Nigerian election process  Viewed as corrupt during 2007 election  New reforms helped make 2011 election free and fair (first in Nigerian history)  Same day registration  Local result verification  Cleaning up voting rolls

37. Participation - Elections  2011: More than 3% of votes declared invalid; approx. 54% turnout  Jonathan (south) 53%; Buhari (North) 32%  Goodluck Jonathan did not win one of the 12 northernmost states out of 36  Buhari did not win more than 25% in Southernmost state

38. Protests & Demonstrations  Since the return of democracy in 1999, a number of ethnic-based & religious movements have mobilized to pressure the federal gov’t to address grievances  Target international oil companies in Niger Delta  July 2002 – unarmed Ijaw women occupied ChevronTexaco’s Nigerian operations  Ended when officials agreed to provide jobs for women’s sons & set up credit plan to help village women start business

39. Protests & Demonstrations  Protest grew in 2006  Groups organized to attack foreign based oil companies  Armed rebel gangs blew up pipelines, disabled pumping states, and kidnapped foreign oil workers  After election of 2011, protests erupted in North b/c Jonathan, a Christian from the South, retained the presidency  Many people believed the informal rule of rotating presidents from north and south had been violated

40. Protests & Demonstrations  2014: Multiple demonstrations/protests broke out calling on the Nigerian government to rescue schoolgirls kidnapped by the Islamist militant group Boko Haram  In April, more than 200 girls were abducted from their boarding school in northeastern Nigeria  More on Boko HaramBoko Haram