1. 10
Blood

2. Blood The only fluid tissue in the human body
Classified as a connective tissue
Components of blood
Living cells
Formed elements—____% (RBC, WBC, Platelets)
Non-living matrix
Plasma—____% (Water, Electrolytes, Plasma Proteins)

3. Blood If blood is centrifuged (spun)
___________ sink to the bottom (45 percent of blood, a percentage known as the hematocrit)
Buffy coat contains leukocytes and platelets (less than 1 percent of blood)
Buffy coat is a thin, whitish layer between the erythrocytes and plasma
______ rises to the top (55 percent of blood)

4. The composition of blood
Figure 10.1

5. Physical Characteristics of Blood
Color range
Oxygen-_____ blood is scarlet red
Oxygen-_____ blood is dull red
pH must remain between __________
Blood temperature is slightly higher than body temperature at 100.4°F (38°C)
In a healthy man, blood volume is about 5–6 liters or about ____ quarts
Blood makes up 8 percent of body weight

6. Blood Plasma Composed of approximately __ percent water
Includes many dissolved substances
Nutrients
Salts (electrolytes)
Respiratory gases
Hormones
Plasma proteins
Waste products

7. Blood Plasma Plasma proteins Most abundant solutes in plasma
Most plasma proteins are made by liver
Various plasma proteins include
_________—regulates osmotic pressure (keeps water in the bloodstream)
Clotting proteins—help to stem blood loss when a blood vessel is injured
__________—help protect the body from pathogens

8. Blood Plasma _________ Blood becomes too acidic (pH below 7.35)
Blood becomes too basic (pH above 7.45)
In each scenario, the respiratory system and kidneys help restore blood pH to normal

9. Formed Elements Erythrocytes Red blood cells (RBCs) __________
White blood cells (WBCs)
Cell fragments

10. Formed Elements Erythrocytes (red blood cells or RBCs)
Main function is to carry ________
Anatomy of circulating erythrocytes
Biconcave disks
Essentially bags of ____________ (iron-bearing protein, transports bulk of the oxygen carried in the blood)
Anucleate (no nucleus)
Contain very few organelles
5 million RBCs per cubic millimeter of blood

11. Photomicrograph of a blood smear
Lymphocyte
Platelets
Lymphocyte
Platelets
Erythrocytes
Neutrophils
Figure 10.2

12. Formed Elements Hemoglobin Iron-containing protein
Each erythrocyte has 250 million hemoglobin molecules
Normal blood contains ____________ of hemoglobin per 100 mL blood
Higher in men 13—18 g/ mL
Women 12—16 g/ mL

13. Formed Elements Homeostatic imbalance of RBCs
______ is a decrease in the oxygen-carrying ability of the blood
______________anemia (SCA) results from abnormally shaped hemoglobin (crescent shape)
Genetic disorder
Polycythemia is an excessive or abnormal increase in the number of erythrocytes

14. Table Types of Anemia

15. Figure 10.3

16. Formed Elements _____________
Disorder resulting from excessive or abnormal increase of RBC
May be caused by bone marrow cancer (polycythemia vera)
May be a response to life at higher altitudes (secondary polycythemia)
Increased RBC slows blood flow and increases blood viscosity

17. Formed Elements Leukocytes (white blood cells or WBCs)
Crucial in the body’s defense against disease
These are complete cells, with a nucleus and organelles
Able to move into and out of blood vessels (_____________)
Can move by ameboid motion
Can respond to chemicals released by damaged tissues (positive chemotaxsis)
Average—_______ to _______ WBC per cubic millimeter of blood (mm³)

18. Formed Elements Abnormal numbers of leukocytes _____________
WBC count above 11,000 leukocytes/mm3
Generally indicates an infection
Leukopenia
Abnormally low leukocyte level
Commonly caused by certain drugs such as corticosteroids and anticancer agents
Bone marrow makes abnormal WBC which becomes cancerous, turns out excess WBC

19. Formed Elements Types of leukocytes _____________
Granules in their cytoplasm can be stained
Possess lobed nuclei
Include neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils
Lack visible cytoplasmic granules
Nuclei are spherical, oval, or kidney-shaped
Include lymphocytes and monocytes

20. Formed Elements List of the WBCs from most to least abundant
Neutrophils
Lymphocytes
Monocytes
Eosinophils
Basophils
Easy way to remember this list
Never
Let
Monkeys
Eat
Bananas

21. Figure 10.4

22. Formed Elements Types of granulocytes ____________
Cytoplasm stains pale pink and contains fine granules
Deep purple nucleus contains three to seven lobes
Function as ____________ at active sites of infection
Numbers increase during infection
3,000–7,000 neutrophils in a cubic millimeter of blood (40–70% of WBCs)

23. Formed Elements Types of granulocytes (continued) ____________
Red, coarse cytoplasmic granules
Figure-8 or bilobed nucleus stains blue-red
Function to kill _____________and play a role in allergy attacks
100–400 eosinophils in a cubic millimeter of blood (1–4% of WBCs)

24. Figure 10.4

25. Formed Elements Types of granulocytes (continued) _____________
Sparse but large blue-purple granules
U- or S-shaped nucleus stains dark blue
Release ________ (vasodilator) at sites of inflammation—makes blood vessels leaky and attracts other WBC to the site
Contain heparin (anticoagulant)
20–50 basophils in a cubic millimeter of blood (0–1% of WBCs)

26. Formed Elements Types of agranulocytes _____________
Cytoplasm is pale blue
Dark purple-blue nucleus
Functions as part of the ______ response
B lymphocytes produce antibodies
T lymphocytes are involved in graft rejection, fighting tumors and viruses
1,500–3,000 lymphocytes in a cubic millimeter of blood (20–45% of WBCs)

27. Figure 10.4

28. Formed Elements Types of agranulocytes (continued) _____________
Largest of the white blood cells
Gray-blue cytoplasm
Dark blue-purple nucleus is often kidney shaped
Function as ____________
Important in fighting chronic infection
100–700 monocytes per cubic millimeter of blood (4–8% of WBCs)

29. Formed Elements Platelets
Derived from ruptured multinucleate cells (megakaryocytes)
Needed for the _______________
Platelet count ranges from 150,000 to 400,000 per cubic millimeter of blood
300,000 is considered a normal number of platelets per cubic millimeter of blood

30. Hematopoiesis Blood cell formation Occurs in ______ bone marrow
All blood cells are derived from a common stem cell (hemocytoblast)
______________ differentiation
Lymphoid stem cell produces lymphocytes
Myeloid stem cell produces all other formed elements

31. Figure 10.4

32. Formation of Erythrocytes
Unable to divide, grow, or synthesize proteins because they are anucleate
Wear out in _____ to _____ days
When worn out, RBCs are eliminated by phagocytes in the spleen or liver
Lost cells are replaced by division of hemocytoblasts in the red bone marrow

33. Control of Erythrocyte Production
Rate is controlled by a hormone (________________)
Kidneys produce most erythropoietin as a response to reduced oxygen levels in the blood
Homeostasis is maintained by negative feedback from blood oxygen levels

34. IMBALANCE
Homeostasis: Normal blood oxygen levels
Stimulus
Low blood O2−carrying ability
due to
• Decreased RBC count
• Decreased amount of hemoglobin
• Decreased availability of O2 1
O2−carrying
ability of blood
increases. 5
IMBALANCE
Enhanced
erythropoiesis
increases RBC
count. 4
Kidney (and liver
to a smaller extent)
releases erythropoietin 2
Erythropoietin
stimulates red bone
marrow. 3
Figure 10.5

35. Formation of White Blood Cells and Platelets
Controlled by __________
Colony stimulating factors (CSFs) and interleukins prompt bone marrow to generate leukocytes
Thrombopoietin stimulates production of platelets

36. Hemostasis
Stoppage of bleeding resulting from a break in a blood vessel
____________ involves three phases
Vascular spasms
Platelet plug formation
Coagulation (blood clotting)

37. Hemostasis _________________
Vasoconstriction causes blood vessel to spasm
Spasms narrow the blood vessel, decreasing blood loss

38. Step Vascular spasms occur. 1 Smooth muscle contracts, causing
vasoconstriction.
Figure 10.6, step 1

39. Hemostasis ______________ formation
Collagen fibers are exposed by a break in a blood vessel
Platelets become “sticky” and cling to fibers
Anchored platelets release chemicals to attract more platelets
Platelets pile up to form a platelet plug

40. Step Platelet plug forms. 2
Injury to lining of vessel exposes collagen fibers;
platelets adhere.
Collagen
fibers
Platelets release chemicals that make nearby
platelets sticky; platelet plug forms.
Platelets
Figure 10.6, step 2

41. Hemostasis _______________
Injured tissues release tissue factor (TF)—helps in clotting
PF3 (a phospholipid) interacts with TF, blood protein clotting factors, and calcium ions to trigger a clotting cascade
Prothrombin activator converts prothrombin to thrombin (an enzyme)

42. Hemostasis Coagulation (continued)
Thrombin joins fibrinogen proteins into hair-like molecules of insoluble fibrin
Fibrin forms a meshwork (the basis for a clot)

43. Step Coagulation events occur. 3
• Clotting factors present in plasma and released by injured tissue cells interact with Ca2+ to form thrombin, the enzyme that catalyzes joining of fibrinogen molecules in plasma to fibrin.
Fibrin
• Fibrin forms a mesh that traps red blood cells
and platelets, forming the clot.
Figure 10.6, step 3

44. Figure 10.7

45. Hemostasis Blood usually clots within ___ to ___ minutes
The clot remains as endothelium regenerates
The clot is broken down after tissue repair

46. Undesirable Clotting __________ A clot in an unbroken blood vessel
Can be deadly in areas like the heart
A thrombus that breaks away and floats freely in the bloodstream
Can later clog vessels in critical areas such as the brain

47. Bleeding Disorders _________________ Platelet deficiency
Even normal movements can cause bleeding from small blood vessels that require platelets for clotting
Evidenced by petechiae, small purplish blotches
____________
Hereditary bleeding disorder
Normal clotting factors are missing

48. Bleeding Disorders
Thrombocytopenia
Hemophilia

49. Blood Groups and Transfusions
Large losses of blood have serious consequences
Loss of __ to __ percent causes weakness
Loss of over ____ percent causes shock, which can be fatal
Transfusions are the only way to replace blood quickly
Transfused blood must be of the same blood group

50. Human Blood Groups Blood contains genetically determined proteins
_______ (a substance the body recognizes as foreign) may be attacked by the immune system
One person’s RBC proteins will be recognized as foreign if transfused into another person with different RBC antigens
____________ are the “recognizers”
Blood is “typed” by using antibodies that will cause blood with certain proteins to clump (______________)

51. Human Blood Groups There are over 30 common red blood cell antigens
The most vigorous transfusion reactions are caused by ____ and ___ blood group antigens

52. ABO Blood Groups Based on the presence or absence of two antigens
Type ___
The lack of these antigens is called type ___

53. ABO Blood Groups
The presence of both antigens A and B is called type ____
The presence of antigen A is called type ___
The presence of antigen B is called type ___
The lack of both antigens A and B is called type ____

54. ABO Blood Groups Blood type ____ can receive A, B, AB, and O blood
Universal _________
Blood type B can receive B and O blood
Blood type A can receive A and O blood
Blood type O can receive ____ blood
Universal _______

55. ABO Blood Groups Blood Group RBC Antigens Plasma antibodies
Blood that can be received AB
A, B
None
A, B, AB, O
Universal recipient B
Anti-A
B, O A
Anti-B
A, O O
Anti-A, Anti-B
Universal donor

56. Rh Blood Groups
Named because of the presence or absence of one of eight Rh antigens (agglutinogen D) that was originally defined in Rhesus monkeys
Most Americans are Rh+ (Rh positive)—RBCs carry the Rh antigen
Problems can occur in mixing ____ blood into a body with _____ (Rh negative) blood
Immune system becomes sensitized and begins producing antibodies (anti-Rh⁺ antibodies) against the foreign blood type

57. Rh Dangers During Pregnancy
Danger occurs only when the mother is Rh– and the father is Rh+, and the child inherits the Rh+ factor
___________ shot can prevent buildup of anti-Rh+ antibodies in mother’s blood

58. Rh Dangers During Pregnancy
The mismatch of an Rh– mother carrying an Rh+ baby can cause problems for the unborn child
The first pregnancy usually proceeds without problems
The immune system is sensitized after the first pregnancy
In a second pregnancy, the mother’s immune system produces antibodies to attack the Rh+ blood (_________ disease of the newborn)

59. Blood Typing Blood samples are mixed with anti-___ and anti-___ serum
Coagulation or no coagulation leads to determining blood type
Typing for ABO and Rh factors is done in the same manner
______________—testing for agglutination of donor RBCs by the recipient’s serum, and vice versa

60. Blood Typing Blood being tested Serum Anti-A Anti-B Type AB (contains
antigens A and B;
agglutinates with
both sera)
Agglutinated
RBCs
Type B (contains
antigen B;
agglutinates with
anti-B serum)
Type A (contains
antigen A;
agglutinates with
anti-A serum)
Type O (contains
no antigens;
does not
agglutinate with
either serum)
Figure 10.8

61. Developmental Aspects of Blood
Sites of blood cell formation
The fetal ____ and ______ are early sites of blood cell formation
Bone marrow takes over hematopoiesis by the ________ month
Fetal hemoglobin differs from hemoglobin produced after birth
Physiologic _______ results in infants in which the liver cannot rid the body of hemoglobin breakdown products fast enough

62. Critical Thinking Question
Mrs. Carlyle is pregnant for the first time. Her blood type is Rh negative, her husband is Rh positive and their first child has been determined to be Rh positive. Ordinarily, the first such pregnancy causes no major problems but baby Carlyle is born blue and cyanotic.

63. Critical Thinking Question
What is this condition, a result of Rh incompatability, called?
Why is the baby cyanotic?
Because this is Mrs. Carlyle’s first pregnancy, how can you account for the baby’s problem?
Assume baby Carlyle was born pink and healthy. What measures should be taken to prevent the previously described situation from happening in a second pregnancy with an Rh negative baby?

64. Next Week
Unit 3—The Cardiovascular System