1. Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

2. 2-2 Scientific Method Samples and Settings Analyzing and Interpretin g Data Ethics Thinking Critically Health and Wellness Types of Researc h C HAPTER P REVIEW

3. Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 2-3 S CIENTIFIC M ETHOD Scienceisamethod. It’snotwhatyoustudy, buthowyoustudyit.

4. Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 2-4 S CIENTIFIC M ETHOD 1. Observe 2. Hypothesize 3. Test 4. Conclusions 5. Evaluate

5. Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 2-5 S CIENTIFIC M ETHOD 1. Observe 2. Hypothesize 3. Test 4. Conclusions 5. Evaluate Step 1 Observe some phenomenon curiosity variables theory

6. Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 2-6 S CIENTIFIC M ETHOD 1. Observe 2. Hypothesize 3. Test 4. Conclusions 5. Evaluate Step 2 Formulate hypotheses and predictions testable prediction derived from theory

7. Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 2-7 S CIENTIFIC M ETHOD 1. Observe 2. Hypothesize 3. Test 4. Conclusions 5. Evaluate Step 3 Test through empirical research operational definition of variables analyze data using statistical procedures

8. Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 2-8 S CIENTIFIC M ETHOD 1. Observe 2. Hypothesize 3. Test 4. Conclusions 5. Evaluate Step 4 Draw conclusions replication of results reliability

9. Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 2-9 S CIENTIFIC M ETHOD 1. Observe 2. Hypothesize 3. Test 4. Conclusions 5. Evaluate Step 5 Evaluate the theory change the theory? peer review and publication meta-analysis

10. Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 2-10 D ESCRIPTIVE R ESEARCH Goal: Describing a Phenomenon – observation – surveys and interviews – case studies

11. Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 2-11 D ESCRIPTIVE R ESEARCH Descriptive research does not answer questions about why things are the way they are.

12. Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 2-12 C ORRELATIONAL R ESEARCH Goal: Identify Relationships  correlation coefficient: r -1.00 ≤ r ≤ 1.00  strength of relationship: magnitude  direction of relationship: + / -

13. Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 2-13 C ORRELATION C OEFFICIENTS None Weak Moderate Strong Very Strong 100 0 25 50 75 Perfect

14. Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 2-14 S CATTER P LOTS Positive Correlation Long Short FewMany Negative Correlations Long Short LowHigh The longer the lecture, the more yawns The longer the lecture, the lower student attentiveness Factors vary in same directionFactors vary in opposite direction Short lecture, few yawns Long lecture, many yawns Medium lecture, medium yawns Long lecture, low attention Short lecture, high attention Medium lecture, medium attention

15. Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 2-15 C ORRELATION AND C AUSATION Correlation does not equal causation. Why is parental harshness correlated with child rebellion? 1.Harsh parents drive their kids to rebellion (?) 2.Rebellious kids drive their parents to harshness (?) 3.In stressed-out families both parents & kids are at worst (?) 4.Ornery families are genetically disposed to such behavior (?) 5.Etc. (?) Any combination of the above may be true or false. A correlation does not settle why behavior occurs. Third variable problem (consider stress & genetics above )

16. Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 2-16 C ORRELATION AND C AUSATION Correlation does not equal causation. Why is happy mood correlated with sociability? 1.Being with others lifts our spirits (?) 2.Happy people seek out company (?) 3.Demands of working on own are oppressive (?) 4.Neurotransmitters that underlie happiness also promote sociability (?) 5.Etc. (?) Any combination of above may be true or false. A correlation does not settle why behavior occurs.

17. Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 2-17 E XPERIMENTAL R ESEARCH Goal: Determine Causation – random assignment to groups Experimental Group – hypothesized cause is manipulated Independent Variable Control Group – treated equally, except no manipulation Observe / Measure any Effect – difference between groups Dependent Variable

18. Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 2-18 E XPERIMENTAL R ESEARCH Experiments are one of the few research designs that allow you to directly test why something happens, that is, to test for cause and effect. Goal: Determine Causation

19. Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 2-19 V ALIDITY External Validity – Representative of real world issues? – Do results generalize to the real world? Internal Validity – Are dependent variable changes the result of independent variable manipulation? – Bias? Logical errors?

20. Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 2-20 B IAS AND E XPECTATIONS Experimenter Bias Demand Characteristics Research Participant Bias Placebo Effect Double-blind Experiment

21. Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 2-21 A PPLYING D IFFERENT R ESEARCH M ETHODS TO S AME P HENOMENON Example: Election of President Barack Obama Possible Research Methods – observation – survey and interview – case studies – correlational research – experimental research

22. Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 2-22 R ESEARCH S AMPLE Population – entire group about whom conclusion is to be drawn Sample – portion of population actually observed

23. Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 2-23 R ESEARCH S AMPLE Population – Entire group about whom conclusion is to be drawn Sample – Portion of population actually observed Representative Sample – characteristics similar to population – opposite of “biased sample”

24. Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 2-24 R ESEARCH S AMPLE Population – entire group about whom conclusion is to be drawn Sample – portion of population actually observed Random Sample – Each individual in population has equal chance of being selected.

25. Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 2-25 R ESEARCH S ETTINGS “Artificial” World – Laboratory Setting – controlled setting “Real” World - Natural Setting – naturalistic observation What are the advantages and disadvantages of each setting?

26. Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 2-26 Range, from top to bottom, namely 20 – 0 = 20 Square root of average squared deviation from mean, namely 9.147 A NALYZING AND I NTERPRETING D ATA Statistics – mathematical methods used to report data Descriptive Inferential – describe/summarize – draw conclusions mean median mode X X XXX X X 0 10 1320 N= 7 Total = 63 Mean = 63 ÷ 7 = 9 Median = midpoint. Half above, half below Namely, Ten Mode = most frequent Namely, zero Measures of Central Tendencies Measures of Dispersion range standard deviation

27. Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 2-27 A NALYZING AND I NTERPRETING D ATA Statistics – mathematical methods used to report data Descriptive Inferential – describe/summarize – draw conclusions bridge between sample and population does data confirm the hypothesis? statistical significance α = 0.05 (confidence level)

28. Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 2-28 R ESEARCH E THICS Research participants have rights! APA Guidelines – informed consent – confidentiality – debriefing – deception Institutional Review Board (IRB)

29. Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 2-29 A NIMAL R ESEARCH IN P SYCHOLOGY Animal research has benefited humans. Used by 5% of researchers Rats and mice used 90% of time Standards of care in animal research: – housing – feeding – psychological and physical well being

30. Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 2-30 A W ISE C ONSUMER … IS SKEPTICAL YET OPEN - MINDED ! Cautions – Avoid overgeneralizing results. – Exercise caution in applying group trends to individual experience. – Question causal inferences. – Look for converging evidence. – Consider the source.

31. Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 2-31 E XPRESSIVE W RITING & H EALTH Results of study on suicide v. accidental death Surviving spouses differed in health rate of talking about the loss. These results inspired a study on writing. Those assigned to write about a trauma experienced better physical health.

32. Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 2-32 C HAPTER R EVIEW Explain what makes psychology a science. Describe the three types of research that are used in psychology and common research settings. Explain research samples and settings. Distinguish between descriptive statistics and inferential statistics. Describe some research challenges that involve ethics. Explain the need to think critically about psychological research. Describe scientific studies on health and wellness and their findings.