1. Tacoma Smelter, 1961. Tacoma Public Library Photography Archive An Historical Perspective on one company’s manipulation of the science of occupational arsenic and lead exposure: The American Smelting and Refining Company (ASARCO) This research has been funded by the US Environmental Protection Agency under the Science to Achieve Results Graduate Fellowship Program. The EPA has not officially endorsed this presentation and the views expressed herein may not reflect the views of the EPA. Marianne Sullivan

2. ASARCO (American Smelting and Refining Company) Company history Currently in bankruptcy Claims by the EPA, states and private parties for environmental damages

3. Involvement in environmental and occupational health research First US company to develop research department devoted to study of air pollution- outgrowth of disputes over smelter smoke damage Department of Hygiene formed in 1945 to study worker health Agricultural research and worker health merged into Department of Environmental Sciences in 1966

4. Lead and occupational health mid- 1960s Growing concern about lead exposure by the mid-1960s Patterson’s paper USPHS activities on lead ASARCO proposes study of Selby smelter workers

5. Dr. Pinto to NY managers, Selby lead study (Oct. 1965) “Such a study would probably show these men have little or nothing wrong with them. I believe such as study would not show an increased amount of cancer, diabetes, emphysema, arthritis, neuritis or any one of a number of other relatively common medical conditions. There is a possibility some chronic kidney irritation might be found. If we control the study, we can make the final decision as to whether or not the results would be published. To be able to tell the world a lot of this scare publicity about lead is nonsense would be very much in our favor.”

6. 1966 ASARCO lead study Worker deaths among lead smelter and refinery workers Philip Enterline, statistician at University of Pittsburgh conducted analysis Finding: greater than expected cancer deaths (type/s of cancer unspecified) No excess deaths from nephritis, hypertension, vascular lesions of the CNS

7. Nelson to New York managers: don’t publish the findings (July 1966) “Were it not for the cancer data, I would recommend prompt publication of our information in a paper in an appropriate journal. What we have is, I believe, the only study of its kind in the world, and it would help the lead industry refute some of the false popular beliefs about lead. But the cancer figures stop us cold for the moment. It wouldn’t do for us to substitute a popular fear of cancer from lead for one of kidney disease from lead. We shall continue our study on the 1961-65 deaths.”

8. Tacoma smelter and arsenic research Copper/custom smelter in Ruston, Washington Smelted high arsenic ore, only US producer of arsenic after 1965 Closed in 1985 but is the subject of on- going superfund clean-up Worker exposures to arsenic were considerable

9. Studies of Tacoma smelter workers Snegireff LS and Lombard OM. Arsenic and cancer: observations in the metallurgical industry. AMA Arch Ind Hyg Occup Med 1951 Conclusions: “The handling of arsenic trioxide in the industry studied does not produce a significant change in the cancer mortality of the plant employees; hence, other factors in addition to arsenic must be considered significant in the causal relationship to cancer.” Research funded by ASARCO, Plant A was the Tacoma smelter

10. Tacoma worker studies, continued Context: Delaney Clause, industry concern that arsenic would be prohibited as residue on food Pinto SS, Bennett BM. Effect of arsenic trioxide exposure on mortality. Arch Environ Health 1963 Conclusions: “This comparison shows there were a few more deaths in the non-arsenic exposed respiratory cancer group than were to be expected by calculation, and further study of these cases is continuing. At present we can say arsenic trioxide was not one of the possible external factors associated with this problem”

11. National Cancer Institute Anaconda copper smelter worker study Lee AM, Fraumeni JF. Arsenic and respiratory cancer in man: an occupational study. JNCI 1969. Three to eight-fold increased risk of lung cancer Pinto and Nelson intended to influence the findings

12. Lee and Fraumeni, published version Published version of abstract placed more emphasis on sulfur dioxide or other “unidentified chemicals” as cofactors in lung cancer etiology Whether or not ASARCO responsible for the change in the abstract is unknown Both authors unaware of ASARCO’s intent

13. Other Tacoma smelter worker studies Milham & Strong, 1974 –increased lung cancer mortality in Tacoma smelter workers 1975 ASARCO admits to increased lung cancer deaths in Tacoma smelter workers (published in 1977, Pinto-Enterline) –Tried to cast doubt on arsenic as etiologic agent –Promoted threshold concept Enterline’s subsequent studies (1987, 1995)

14. Summary Purpose of research –influence scientific opinion on occupational hazards –protect economic interests Did not publish unfavorable research which showed workers at risk; withheld data from workers and health officials Argues for the need for strong system of worker protection and independent studies of occupational health risks