1. Chapter 7 Thinking, Language, and Intelligence

2. Module 7.1 Thinking

3. Module 7.1 Preview Questions  What is thinking?  What are mental images?  What are the major types of concepts people use, and how are they applied?  What can we do to solve problems more efficiently?  How do cognitive biases influence decision making?  What cognitive processes underlie creative thinking?

4. Cognitive Psychology  The branch of psychology that explores how we acquire knowledge about the world  Cognitive psychologists investigate: Thinking Thinking Information processing Information processing Language Language Problem solving Problem solving

5. Mental Images  A mental picture or representation of an object or event Not an actual or photographic representation Not an actual or photographic representation Object or event is reconstructed from memory Object or event is reconstructed from memory  Ability to hold and manipulate mental images aids with cognitive tasks

6. Concepts: What Makes a Bird a Bird?  Mental categories used to group objects, events, and ideas according to their common features  Functions Helps bring a sense of order to the world Helps bring a sense of order to the world Makes us better able to anticipate or predict future events Makes us better able to anticipate or predict future events Helps us to respond more quickly to events Helps us to respond more quickly to events

7. Types of Concepts  Logical Concepts: clearly defined rules for determining membership (e.g., triangle)  Natural Concepts: membership rules are poorly defined or fuzzy (e.g., game) Judgments based on the probability that object is a member of a particular category Judgments based on the probability that object is a member of a particular category

8. Problem Solving: Applying mental strategies to solving problems  Insight believed to result from restructuring a problem  Insight may occur when one: Sees problem from a different perspective Sees problem from a different perspective Notices new information Notices new information Recognizes previously overlooked connections Recognizes previously overlooked connections

9. 3 types of problems 1. Problems of inducing structure- person must discover the relations among parts of the problem 2. Problems of arrangement- person must arrange parts in a way that satisfies some criterion 3. Problems of transformation- person must carry out a sequence of transformations in order to reach a specific goal

10. Problem-Solving Strategies  Algorithms  Heuristics Backward-working heuristic Backward-working heuristic Means-end heuristic Means-end heuristic Creating subgoals Creating subgoals  Analogies  Incubation periods

11. Problem-Solving Strategies  Algorithms: step by step rules  Heuristics: rules of thumb Backward-working heuristic: start with solution and work backward Backward-working heuristic: start with solution and work backward Means-end heuristic: evaluate current situation and compare it to the end result Means-end heuristic: evaluate current situation and compare it to the end result Creating subgoals: break a larger problem into smaller problems Creating subgoals: break a larger problem into smaller problems

12. Mental Roadblocks to Problem Solving  Mental Set: tendency to rely on strategies that worked in the past  Functional Fixedness: tendency to perceive objects as limited to the customary functions they serve Functional Fixedness Functional Fixedness  Irrelevant Information: distract attention Continue

13. Decision Making  The selection of a course of action from among available alternatives  Mental roadblocks in decision making: Confirmation bias Confirmation bias Representativeness heuristic Representativeness heuristic Availability heuristic Availability heuristic

14. Creativity: Not Just for the Few  Thinking in ways that lead to original, practical, and meaningful solutions or that generate new ideas or forms of artistic expression  Measuring creativity Divergent thinking (conceive of new ways) Divergent thinking (conceive of new ways) Convergent thinking (find one correct answer) Convergent thinking (find one correct answer)

15. Cognitive Processes Underlying Creativity  Metaphor and analogy  Conceptual combination  Conceptual expansion

16. Module 7.2 Language

17. Module 7.2 Preview Questions  What are the major components of language?  How does language develop?  What is the linguistic relativity hypothesis?  Can species other than humans use language?

18. What Is Language?  A system of communication composed of symbols that are arranged according to a set of rules (grammar) to form meaningful expressions

19. Components of Language  Phonemes: basic units of sound  Morphemes: smallest units of meaning  Syntax: rules of grammar that determine word ordering  Semantics: rules about meaning of words

20. Language Development  Universal course of language development  Noam Chomsky’s (1965) language acquisition device  Critics of language acquisition device notion: Not an actual physical structure Not an actual physical structure Does not explain mechanisms by which language is produced Does not explain mechanisms by which language is produced  Nature and nurture necessary for language to develop

21. Culture and Language: Does the language we use determine how we think?  Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis: language determines how we think and perceive reality Also called the Whorfian hypothesis Also called the Whorfian hypothesis  Research findings: Language does not determine thought Language does not determine thought Culture and the language we use are important influences on how we think and perceive the world Culture and the language we use are important influences on how we think and perceive the world

22. Is Language Unique to Humans?  Attempts to teach apes to communicate with humans (e.g. Koko the gorilla)  Is this language or reinforced gestures? Depends on how one defines “language” Depends on how one defines “language”

23. Module 7.3 Intelligence

24. Module 7.3 Preview Questions  What is intelligence and how is it measured?  What constitutes a good intelligence test?  What are some examples of the misuse of intelligence tests?  What gender differences exist in cognitive abilities?  What are some of the major theories of intelligence?  Is intelligence determined by heredity or environment?

25. Defining Intelligence  What is intelligence? Book or formal learning? Book or formal learning? Street smarts? Street smarts? Ability to solve problems? Ability to solve problems? Ability to adapt to the environment? Ability to adapt to the environment?  Global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with the environment

26. Measuring Intelligence: Binet-Simon Test  Alfred Binet commissioned by French school officials in 1904 to measure mental abilities of children Developed test consisting of memory tasks and other short tasks of problem solving Developed test consisting of memory tasks and other short tasks of problem solving  Intelligence calculated by subtracting mental age from chronological age  Stern’s intelligence quotient (IQ) IQ = MA/CA x 100 IQ = MA/CA x 100

27. Measuring Intelligence: Wechsler Intelligence Tests  Deviation IQ: IQ score is based on the deviation of person’s score from the norms of the person’s age group. Standardized so that average score is 100 Standardized so that average score is 100  WAIS-III contains subtests organized into two groupings: Verbal subtests Verbal subtests Performance subtests Performance subtests

28. Characteristics of a Good Test of Intelligence  Standardization: process of establishing norms for a test by administering it to large numbers of people Sample must be representative of the test’s target population Sample must be representative of the test’s target population  Reliability: consistency of test scores over time Test-retest reliability Test-retest reliability Alternative-forms method Alternative-forms method  Validity: degree to which a test measures what it purports to measure Predictive validity Predictive validity

29. Figure 7.14: Gender Differences in Abilities (Cont’d) Source: Kimura, 1992.

30. Why Gender Differences?  Biological factors? Exposure of male fetuses to higher levels of testosterone may account for differences in visual-spatial skills. Exposure of male fetuses to higher levels of testosterone may account for differences in visual-spatial skills.  Role of psychosocial factors? A self-fulfilling prophecy? A self-fulfilling prophecy?

31. Extremes of Intelligence: Intellectually Gifted  Have an IQ of about 130 or higher  Gifted children may benefit from enriched educational programs  Today the concept of giftedness also includes children with special talents (e.g., music or art)

32. Extremes of Intelligence: Mental Retardation  Generalized deficit or impairment in intellectual and social skills IQ of about 70 or below IQ of about 70 or below Difficulty coping with appropriate tasks Difficulty coping with appropriate tasks  Practice of mainstreaming common for mild retardation  Causes can be biological, environmental, or both

33. Components of Intelligence  Some psychologists believe that the essence of intelligence is a single, general factor, while others believe intelligence is best described as a collection of distinct abilities  Savant syndrome- found in individuals having a remarkable talent even though they are mentally slow in other domains Such as the ability to multiply numbers quickly in their heads or determine the day of the week for any given dateSuch as the ability to multiply numbers quickly in their heads or determine the day of the week for any given date

34. Psychometric Theories of Intelligence  Spearman’s G Factor  Cattell’s Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence  Guilford’s Structure of Intelligence Operations Operations Contents Contents Products Products

35. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.7 / 35  Verbal comprehension  Numerical ability  Memory  Inductive reasoning  Perceptual speed  Verbal fluency  Spatial relations Thurstone’s Primary Mental Abilities

36. Overview of Theories of Intelligence  Conventional views of intelligence Focus is on structure of intelligence and how to measure amount of intelligence Focus is on structure of intelligence and how to measure amount of intelligence General factor of intelligence important in predicting school and job performance General factor of intelligence important in predicting school and job performance  Gardner’s and Sternberg’s models Traditional intelligence tests fail to capture important dimensions of intelligence Traditional intelligence tests fail to capture important dimensions of intelligence But are there separate types of intelligences? But are there separate types of intelligences?

37. Overview of Theories of Intelligence (Cont’d)  Human intelligence consists of multiple abilities, perhaps multiple intelligences  Must take into account the cultural context in which intelligent behavior occurs  Need to think about measuring intelligence more broadly

38. Racial Differences in IQ  White, Euro-Americans typically score about 15 points higher, on average  Debate over nature vs. nurture, but increasing evidence of environmental factors  Racial differences in IQ scores have narrowed in recent years  Formal enrichment programs can produce gains in IQ  Group differences do not indicate individual potential

39. Application: Module 7.4 Becoming a Creative Problem Solver

40. Good Thinkers  Good thinkers not only have a repertoire of effective algorithms and heuristics, they know how to avoid the common impediments to problem solving and decision making

41.  Adopt a questioning attitude  Gather information  Avoid getting stuck in mental sets  Generate alternatives Personal brainstorming Personal brainstorming After generating list, put aside for few days After generating list, put aside for few days Find analogies Find analogies Think outside the box Think outside the box  Sleep on it  Test it out Key Steps to Becoming a Creative Problem Solver