3. Understanding of gender identity before they begin to mimic same-sex models 3 Stages in the development of a gender identity: Basic gender identity (2-3) – self labelling, based upon outward appearance only Thompson F: most 2-3yr olds could positively identify their sex (more 3yr olds : 2yr olds) Gender stability (3-4)– sex is stable over time but not different situations e.g. Wearing opposite sex clothes McConaghy F: When a male/female doll dressed in transparent clothing was shown to children, decisions based on its sex were determined by it clothing Slaby and Frey F: When asking children, “will you be a mommy/daddy when you grow up?” they didn’t understand that this was stable until the age of 3-4yrs Gender constancy (4-6) – sex stays the same over time and situation, only then will learn gender appropriate behaviours Self socialisation – seek out same sex models on how to react and behave Slaby and Frey F: Those children that showed high levels of gender constancy paid more attention to same sex models Cooper F: Pre-schoolers high in gender constancy were influenced by gender roles in the media : those low in gender constancy

4. Munroe F: children in several cultures went through these stages on the way to developing gender constancy Ignores external factors such as rewards and punishment seen in operant conditioning Lobel F: Sex typed behaviour developed long before gender constancy, and gender constancy tells us little about how sex typed children are

5. We all organise info in terms of schemas, one of the most important being gender These schemas form at the beginning of basic gender identity(2yrs) Several schemas are formed: In group/out group – which toys and activities are acceptable for each gender avoiding activities associated with the opposite gender. Own gender – how to behave in a gender stereotype way The schemas develop in 3 stages: associate things with gender begin to link gender items together and make presumptions about one’s own gender(4- 6) children can make these inferences about the opposite gender(8) Martin and Halverson F: when gender inconsistent pictures were shown, they were remembered less and distorted to fit their schemas : consistent Bradbard F: children played longer with gender appropriate toys, and a week later remembered which toys were classed as “boy” or “girls” Liben F: children showed a gender related bias in recall, remembering things relevant to their own sex Halverson F: Children recalled more gender consistent people than inconsistent

7. Androgyny = similar male and female characteristics Physical = both male and female genitalia Psychological = both masculine and feminine traits Bem BSRI – 60 words (20 M, 20 F, 10 neutral desirable, 10 neutral undesirable) The more similar the masculine and feminine scores were = androgynous The larger the difference in the masculine and feminine scores = sex typed 350 F + 550 M F: there were high levels of androgyny between M+F in students Bem argued that being androgynous was a good thing, as you were more able to cope with life’s challenges because your behaviour wasn’t constrained by strict gender roles Bem F: Androgynous people are more flexible to certain situations, as well as being able to resist social pressures Delucia F: androgynous people were more flexible in love and in dating Shaffer et al F: Androgynous people are more able to adjust their behaviour to the demands of the situation Archer F: Students which took the BSRI and scored highly androgynous were more creative and optimistic Self esteem is a measure of high psychological health Stockland F: androgynous people had high self esteem and were more popular with their peers : sex types Rosenburg F androgynous people have high self esteem

8. Being androgynous doesn’t necessarily affect your sex typed behaviour Spence F: androgynous M/F still felt masculine feminine despite being able to act like the opposite sex there is evidence which opposes the view that androgyny is more desirable than masculine traits Orlofsky F: high self esteem and better adjustment were associated with masculine traits than androgyny = masculine traits have more value in most societies than females Bems BSRI scale is reductionist in the fact that it doesn’t take account of both positive and negative, masculine and feminine traits, giving reason for the ambiguous results Woodhill F: it is useful the separate the positive and negative masculine and feminine traits as a person may be androgynous but not psychologically healthy When seperating them into positive and negative. It was the positive people that had higher indicators of mental health: negative

9. People are uncomfortable with the gender which they have been assigned to at birth on the basis of their genitals More common in boys than in girls Trapped in the body of the wrong sex resulting in depression, anxiety and distress The biological explanation on GID Unusual development of parts of the brain before birth which dont correspond to their biological sex Pool F: That biological males had more somatostatin neurones than females, and in transsexuals the number of neurones corresponded to their gender choice not their biological sex Swaab F: Studies brain structures known to differ in males and females, and that 6 trans-females had female brain structures Zhou F: Trans-females had a similar brain development to normal females in the part of the brain known at the BSTc responsible of sexual behaviour Hormones are vital in the development of an individuals gender identity Rekers et al F: 70 boys with GID showed had no imbalance of hormones pre-nataly, suggesting GID is caused by family factors Kula et al F: studies on animals showed that sex hormone prior to birth have a key influence on sexual behaviour in adulthood

10. A faulty gene may be the cause for GID Bernard et al F: looking at 112 male-females and 258 male controls, a large association between a mutation on the androgen receptor(AR) and trans-gender individuals Family constellations theory Certain family conditions may be responsible for GID Stroller F: An association between a strong relationship with the mother and a distant father is responsible for trans-females. The reason for trans-males is because of a depressed mother and a father who isn’t present leaving the child to take control Rekers F: link between the absence of a father figure either psychologically or physically and GID in boys Rekers F: in a group of 36 GID boys there was no father figure in 75% of the homes of the most disturbed and 21% of the least disturbed Disruption of primary attachment in early life by death and an inability to mourn may be a causal factor in the development of GID Case study of James F: his mother suddenly died and he was unable to mourn for her, he developed GID. After family therapy, were he talked about her his GID gradually dissapeared, thus suggesting that family factors in GID have a solution and can possibly reverse GID Learning theory may play some part in GID. A parent having a strong desire for a child of the opposite sex, could unknowingly reinforce gender inappropriate behaviour increasing the likelihood of GID