1. Thinking & Intelligence

2. Cognition Another term for thinking, knowing and remembering. Maybe by studying the way we think, we can eventually think better. Does the way we think really matter?

3. Concepts A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas or people. Concepts are similar to Piaget’s idea of…. In order to think about the world, we form…….. Schemas These animals all look different, but they fall under our concept of “dogs”.

4. Animal FishBird SalmonSharkOstrichCanary Has skin Eats Breathes Has fins Can swim Has gills Has wings Can fly Has feathers Can sing Is yellow Can’t fly Is tall Can bite Is dangerous Is pink Is edible

5. Prototypes A mental image or best example of a category. We base our concepts on …. If a new object is similar to our prototype, we are better able to recognize it. If this was my prototype of a man, then what am I?

6. How Do We Solve Problems?

7. 1.) Trial and Error

8. 2.) Algorithms A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Usually by using a formula. What are the benefits and detriments of algorithms?

9. 3.) Heuristics A rule-of-thumb strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently. It is fast, but it… Doesn’t guarantee the solution. Two major types of heuristics….

10. Representativeness Heuristic Judging a situation based on how similar the aspects are to the prototypes the person holds in their mind. Like thinking everyone from La Costa Canyon is preppy, or someone with glasses is nerdy, or a blonde is not smart. If I tell you that Sonia Dara is a Sports Illustrated swimsuit model, you would make certain quick judgments (heuristics) about her…like about her interests or intelligence. She is an economics major at Harvard University. Who went to Harvard? My friend Bob is a smart dude, but did not go to Harvard (but he looks like he did).

11. Availability Heuristic Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory. Vivid examples in the news often cause an availability heuristic. Which place would you be more scared of getting mugged or even murdered? The Bronx, NY Gary, Indiana The crime rate of Gary, Indiana is MUCH higher than the Bronx. But when you think of crime, which town comes to mind?

12. Heuristics can lead to Overconfidence… The tendency to be more confident than correct. To overestimate the accuracy of your beliefs and judgments. Considering “overconfidence”, would you want to risk 1 million dollars on an audience poll?

13. Insight A sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem. That “ah ha” moment. No real strategy involved.

14. Obstacles to Problem Solving

15. Fixation The inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective. How would you arrange six matches to form four equilateral triangles? Two examples of fixation are…

16. 1.) Mental set a.k.a. rigidity. The tendency to approach a problem in a particular way. Here is an example…

17. The Nine-Dot Problem... Without lifting your pen from the page, can you connect all nine dots with only four lines?

18. 2.) Functional Fixedness The inability to see a new use for an object. Think of as many uses as you can for a ……

19. Confirmation Bias The tendency to focus on information that supports preconceptions. For example, if one believes that all Italians are in shape and go tanning, then they turn on MTV to prove our point. Look…I knew it was true!!! But is it really?

20. Framing 90% of the population will be saved with this medication…..or 10% of the population will die despite this medication. You should not drink more than two drinks per day….or You should not drink more than 730 drinks a year. How an issue is worded or presented, which can influence decisions and judgments..

21. Intelligence What makes us smart? Or not so smart?

22. Intelligence The ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations. According to this definition, are both Albert Einstein and Babe Ruth intelligent?

23. Theories of Intelligence Remember Fluid versus Crystallized Intelligence? 4 main theoretical concepts of intelligence….

24. Multiple Intelligences Howard Gardner disagreed with Spearman’s idea of general intelligence and instead came up with the concept of multiple intelligences. He came up with the idea by studying people with savant syndrome (a condition where a person has limited mental ability but is exceptional in one area). http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GlNiAqYN6ZQ

25. Howard Gardner and Multiple Intelligences Gardner believes that there exists at least 8 different types of intelligences. 1.Linguistic 2.Logical-mathematical 3.Spatial 4.Musical 5.Body-kinesthetic 6.Intrapersonal 7.Interpersonal 8.Naturalist

26. Charles Spearman and his G factor “General Intelligence” (g) is the factor that Spearman believed underlies all multiple intelligences. If you are good at one subject you are usually good at many others. Jack Bauer is good at torturing, bomb defusing, shooting, figuring out evil plots and saving the country (and he is good looking). Is there anything he cannot do?

27. Robert Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory Most commonly accepted theory today. Three types of intelligence: 1.Analytical - academic problem solving. 2.Creative - generating novel ideas. 3.Practical - required for everyday tasks where multiple solutions exist.

28. Emotional Intelligence (EQ) Identified by Daniel Goleman is what we might call social intelligence. The ability to perceive, express, understand, and regulate emotions. Some studies show EQ to be a greater predictor for future success than IQ.

29. How do we Assess Intelligence? Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon set out to figure out a concept called a mental age (what a person of a particular age should know). They did this by measuring their reasoning skills. They discovered that by discovering someone’s mental age they can predict future performance. They were hoping to place children in the proper classes & avoid any teacher bias.

30. I.Q. (Intelligence Quotient) Lewis Terman (Stanford University) used Binet’s research to construct the modern day I.Q. test called the Stanford-Binet Test. I.Q. is a measure of intelligence that is obtained by comparing mental age (MA) as determined by testing, with chronological age (CA). German psychologist William Stern derived the famous formula for I.Q.

31. Stern’s I.Q. Formula IQ=Mental age divided by Chronological age X 100. A 8 year old girl has a mental age of 11, what is her IQ? 138 A 12 year old boy has the mental age of 9, what is his IQ? 75 A boy has the mental age of 10 and a chronological age of 10 what is his IQ? 100

32. Problems with the IQ Formula It does not really work well on adults, why? then his IQ would be 50!!!!!! If a 60 year old man… does as well as an average 30 year old, That makes no sense!!!!!

33. Wechsler Intelligence Tests David Wechsler designed a test to measure “real world” intelligence, not just verbal skills. Most widely used test today. Consists of 11 subtests; gives an overall IQ score and scores for the subtest areas (i.e. verbal, performance). WAIS (for adults). WISC (for children).

34. Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (sub-scores and subtests)

37. Group Intelligence Tests Originally developed by the U.S. army in the early 1900’s to evaluate massive numbers of WWI recruits. Tremendous efficiency makes them appealing to schools. But the economic efficiency comes at the cost of test reliability.

38. How do we construct an IQ Test? Standardization. Reliability. Validity.

39. Standardization The test must be pre-tested to a representative sample of people and… Form a normal distribution or bell curve.

40. Reliability The extent which a test yields consistent results over time. Spilt halves reliability or test–retest reliability.

41. Validity The extent to which a test measures what it is supposed to measure. Content Validity: does the test sample a behavior of interest? Predictive Validity: does the test predict future behavior.

42. Types of Tests Aptitude Attempt to predict the test-taker’s future performance. Achievement Tests that measure what you have learned or accomplished.

43. Does Intelligence Change Over Time? By age 4, a child’s IQ can predict adolescent IQ scores. After age 7, IQ scores stabilize and the consistency of the scores increase with the age of the child.

44. The Flynn Effect IQ Scores have been on the rise over the past 100 years!

45. Group Differences in Intelligence Test Scores As a group, white Americans tend to have an average IQ test score about 8 to 15 points higher than their Hispanic or African-American counterparts. Evidence suggests environmental differences (i.e. cultural preparation) are largely responsible for the IQ differences in ethnic groups. Asian students outperform North American students on math achievement and aptitude tests.

46. Gender Similarities and Differences Females Are Good At: Verbal ability: girls excel at reading, spelling, and writing. Recognizing emotions. Spatial memory: females tend to have better memory for spatial locations of objects. Males Are Good At: Around age 11 boys start to excel in higher levels of math. And also spatial skills (like reading a road map). Prenatal testosterone may be a factor.

47. Is Intelligence Inherited? Most psychologists believe intelligence is 50% inherited. Other factors: education, social class, environment, nutrition and stimulation (especially at an early age).

48. Figure 9.13 Studies of IQ similarity

49. Extremes of Intelligence

50. Superior Intelligence Marilyn vos Savant recorded one of the highest IQ ever. At 7 years of age she was answering questions like a typical 13 year old. People with superior intelligence tend to be healthier, more successful and have higher self esteem than the general population. Superior intelligence = 130+ Genius = 140+

51. Intellectual Disability A condition of limited metal ability; not able to perform at a level appropriate for their age (indicated by below a 70 IQ). Can be caused by physical defects (injury, disease and genetic defects). Environmental factors such as nutrition, poor health, drug abuse and lack of stimulation can also contribute to these conditions.

52. Intellectual Disability Classifications of Intellectual Disability: 50-70Mild 35-49Moderate 20-34Severe Under 20Profound People with IQ scores around 70 can hold jobs with assistance, but as you move down towards severe and profound, the physical defects are more severe.

53. Test Bias Some tests do discriminate. But this is primarily due to different cultural experiences. 2 Tests designed to illustrate cultural bias: 1.Black Intelligence Test of Cultural Homogeneity (B.I.T.C.H. Test) 2.Dove Counterbalance I.Q.Test (Chitlings Test)