1. Introduction to Physiology and Transport
Tortora, 13th edition
Ebaa M Alzayadneh, DDS, PhD

2. Anatomy and Physiology Defined
Two branches of science that deal with body’s parts and function
Anatomy
The science of body structures and relationships
First studies by dissection (cutting apart)
Imaging techniques
Physiology
The science of body functions

3. Syllabus Lec. No. Topic 12th ed. 13th ed
UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN
FACULTY OF MEDICINE
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSIOLOGY & BIOCHEMISTRY
PHYSIOLOGY COURSE FOR PHARMACY STUDENTS
Summer 2015
Text book:
Principles of anatomy and physiology, G.J. Tortora & B.H. Derrickson, 13th edition
Lec. No. Topic th ed th ed
Introduction – Cell and Transport , , 63-78
4-5 Body fluids and Blood. Blood functions &
& properties, RBC, WBC & platelets –
Hemostasis, blood grouping and types
6 Excitable tissues
Action potential, Graded
Potential, NM junction, Skeletal
Muscle contraction & relaxation, muscle
Metabolism, fatigue and tone.
1 Autonomic Nervous system
9 Cardiovascular system
5 Respiratory system
There is a Midterm exam 30%, Quiz 20% and a Final Exam 50%

4. Levels of Structural Organization

5. Levels of structural organization
Chemical level: Atoms (C, H, O, N, P, Ca, S), Molecules (DNA, H2O, Glucose)
Cellular level: Cells are the basic structural and functional unit of any organism
Tissue level: Groups of cells and surrounding materials that perform a certain function.
Organ level: composed of different types of tissues that have a recognizable shape and specific functions.
System level (organ-system level): consists of related organs with a common function.
Organismal level: All parts of the body

6. The Eleven Systems of The Human Body

7. The Eleven Systems of The Human Body

8. Basic Life Processes Catabolism: Breakdown Anabolism: build up
Metabolism: Sum of all chemical processes in the body
Catabolism: Breakdown
Anabolism: build up
Responsiveness: ability to detect and respond to changes
Movement
Growth: hypertrophy(size) and proliferation(no.)
Differentiation: development of a cell from unspecialized (precursor,stem)to a specialized state.

9. Basic Life Processes Reproduction:
Formation of new cells for growth, repair or replacement or formation of a new individual

10. Homeostasis
A condition of equilibrium (balance) in the body’s internal environment.
Dynamic condition
Shift occur in a narrow range that is compatible with maintaining life.
Example
Blood glucose levels range between 70 and 110 mg of glucose/dL of blood
Whole body contributes to maintain the internal environment within normal limits

11. Homeostasis and Body Fluids
Maintaining the volume and composition of body fluids is important
Body fluids are defined as dilute, watery solutions containing dissolved chemicals inside or outside of the cell
Intracellular Fluid (ICF)
Fluid within cells
Extracellular Fluid (ECF)
Fluid outside cells
Interstitial fluid is ECF between cells and tissues

12. Interstitial Fluid and Body Function
Cellular function depends on the regulation of composition of interstitial fluid (Body’s internal environment)
Composition of interstitial fluid changes as substances move across capillary walls to:
provide nutrients (glucose, oxygen, ions) to tissue cells
remove waste (carbon dioxide) from tissue cells

13. Control of Homeostasis
Homeostasis is constantly being disrupted
Physical insults
Intense heat or lack of oxygen
Changes in the internal environment
Drop in blood glucose due to lack of food
Physiological stress
Demands of work or school
Disruptions
Mild and temporary (balance is quickly restored)
Intense and Prolonged (poisoning or severe infections)
REGULATING SYSTEMS: mainly nervous system and endocrine system

14. Feedback System (Loop)
Cycle of events
Body status is monitored and re-monitored
Each monitored variable is termed a controlled condition
Any change is called a stimulus
Three Basic components
Receptor, ex; nerve endings
Control center, ex; brain
Effector, ex; muscle
Receptor: body structure that monitors changes in a controlled condition and sends input to a control center, input can be nerve impulses or chemical signals.
Control Center: Such as the brain that sets a range of values within which a controlled condition should be maintained
Effector: a body structure that receives an output ( nerve impulses) from controlled center and produce a response or effect

15. Feedback Systems Receptor
Body structure that monitors changes in a controlled condition
Sends input to the control center
Nerve ending of the skin in response to temperature change

16. Feedback Systems Control Center Brain
Sets the range of values to be maintained
Evaluates input received from receptors and generates output command
Nerve impulses, hormones
Brain acts as a control center receiving nerve impulses from skin temperature receptors

17. Feedback Systems Effector Receives output from the control center
Produces a response or effect that changes the controlled condition
Found in nearly every organ or tissue
Body temperature drops the brain sends and impulse to the skeletal muscles to contract
Shivering to generate heat

18. Negative and Positive Feedback systems
The response feeds back information to the control center to change controlled condition:
Negative Feedback systems
Reverses a change in a controlled condition (Occurs more often)
Regulation of blood pressure (force exerted by blood as it presses again the walls of the blood vessels)
Positive Feedback systems
Strengthen or reinforce a change in one of the body’s controlled conditions (not very often)
Normal child birth

19. Negative Feedback: Regulation of Blood Pressure
Good thing
External or internal stimulus increase BP
Baroreceptors (pressure sensitive receptors)
Detect higher BP
Send nerve impulses to brain for interpretation
Response sent via nerve impulse sent to heart and blood vessels
BP drops and homeostasis is restored
Drop in BP negates the original stimulus

20. Positive Feedback Systems: Normal Childbirth
Good thing
Uterine contractions pushes baby to cervix
Stretch-sensitive receptors in cervix send impulse to brain
Oxytocin is released into the blood
Contractions are enhanced and so Oxytocin release and baby pushes farther down the uterus
Cycle continues to the birth of the baby (no stretching)

21. Positive Feedback: Blood Loss
Bad thing
Positive Feedback: Blood Loss
Normal conditions, heart pumps blood under pressure to body cells (oxygen and nutrients)
Severe blood loss
Blood pressure drops
Cells receive less oxygen and function less efficiently
If blood loss continues
Heart cells become weaker
Heart pumping decrease
BP continues to fall more
May lead to death

22. Homeostatic Imbalances
Normal equilibrium of body processes are disrupted
Moderate imbalance
Disorder: any abnormality of structure and function
Disease: specific term for an illness with recognizable signs and symptoms
Signs are objective changes such as a fever, swelling or high blood pressure
Symptoms are subjective changes such as headache
Severe imbalance
Death

23. Cells and homeostasis Cell structure:
1. Plasma membrane
forms the cell’s outer boundary
separates the cell’s internal
environment from the outside
environment
lipid bilayer: Glycerol head (hydrophilic backbone) and fatty acid (hydrophobic tail)
is a selective barrier:
lipid soluble substances cross the lipid bilayer
water soluble substances only cross through channels
plays a role in cellular communication

24. Cell structure:
2. Cytoplasm - all the cellular contents between the plasma membrane and the nucleus - cytosol - the fluid portion, mostly water - organelles - subcellular structures having characteristic shapes and specific functions

25. Fig. 3.1 Generalized Body Cell

26. Cell Structure 3. Nucleus - large organelle that contains DNA
- contains chromosomes, each of which
consists of a single molecule of DNA and
associated proteins
- a chromosome contains thousands of
hereditary units called genes

27. Plasma Membrane Flexible yet sturdy barrier
The fluid mosaic model - the arrangement of molecules within the membrane resembles a sea of lipids containing many types of proteins
The lipids act as a barrier to certain substances
The proteins act as “gatekeepers” to certain molecules and ions

28. Structure of a Membrane
Consists of a lipid bilayer - made up of phospholipids, cholesterol and glycolipids
Integral proteins – firmly embedded and extended into or through the lipid bilayer
Transmembrane proteins - most integral proteins, span the entire lipid bilayer
Peripheral proteins – more loosely attached to the inner or outer surface of the membrane, do not extend through it

29. Structure of the Plasma Membrane

30. Structure of a Membrane
Glycoproteins - membrane proteins with a carbohydrate group attached that protrudes into the extracellular fluid
Glycocalyx - the “sugary coating” surrounding the membrane made up of the carbohydrate portions of the glycolipids and glycoproteins; functions:
Signature
Adherence
protection
attracts fluid

31. Functions of Membrane Proteins
Integral proteins are
Ion channels
Transporters - selectively move polar or ionic substances through the membrane
Receptors - for cellular recognition; a ligand is a molecule that binds with a receptor
Enzymes - catalyze chemical reactions
Linkers
Mechanical activities and division
Membrane glycoprotein and glycolipids often are:
Cell-identity markers, ex. ABO blood type
Peripheral proteins: support the plasma membrane

32. Fig 3.03 Tortora

33. Membrane Permeability
The cell is either permeable or impermeable to certain substances
The lipid bilayer is permeable to oxygen, carbon dioxide and steroids, slightly permeable to water and urea (small uncharged), but impermeable to glucose ( large polar uncharged).
Transmembrane proteins act as channels and transporters to assist the entrance of certain substances, for example, glucose and ions. Very selective
Macromolecules such as proteins only pass by endocytosis and exocytosis.

34. Gradients Across Plasma Membrane
Concentration gradient:
Difference in the concentration of a chemical from one place to another ( Na and O2 outside, K and CO2 inside)
Electrical gradient:
Difference in electrical charges between two compartments.
(Membrane Potential)
Both help substances move across the plasma membrane down their Chemical or electrical gradient to reach equilibrium. (Electrochemical gradient)

35. Diffusion Passive process due to particles kinetic energy
Move down the concentration gradient( high to low)
Factors affecting Diffusion rate:
Steepness of conc. Gradient (directly)
Temperature (directly)
Mass of diffusing substance (indirectly)
Surface area (directly)
Diffusion distance (indirectly)

36. Diffusion Through the lipid bilayer : fast
O2, CO2, N
Fatty acids
Steroids
Fat soluble vitamins (A,E,D,K)
Small alcohol and ammonia
H2O and Urea (slightly)
Through membrane ion channels: slower due to surface area.
mostly; K, Cl
Na, Ca
gated channels: open/close

37. Passive vs. Active Transport
Passive processes - substances move across cell membranes without the input of any energy; use the kinetic energy of individual molecules or ion
Active processes - a cell uses energy, primarily from the breakdown of ATP, to move a substance across the membrane, i.e., against a concentration gradient

38. Passive: Simple Diffusion, Channel-mediated Facilitated Diffusion, and Carrier-mediated Facilitated Diffusion
High
Low
Transport maximum-saturation

39. Channel-mediated Facilitated Diffusion of Potassium ions through a Gated K + Channel

40. Glucose
transporter
gradient
Extracellular fluid
Plasma membrane
Cytosol 1 2 3
Glucose
transporter
gradient
Extracellular fluid
Plasma membrane
Cytosol 1 2
Glucose
transporter
gradient
Extracellular fluid
Plasma membrane
Cytosol 1
Carrier-mediated Facilitated Diffusion of Glucose across a Plasma Membrane

41. Active Transport 1
3 Na+ expelled
3 Na+
ADP P K+
gradient
Na+
Na+/K+ ATPase
Extracellular fluid
Cytosol
ATP 2 1
3 Na+ expelled
3 Na+
ADP P K+
gradient
Na+
Na+/K+ ATPase
Extracellular fluid
Cytosol
2K+
ATP 2 3 1
3 Na+ expelled
3 Na+
ADP P
2 K+
imported K+
gradient
Na+
Na+/K+ ATPase
Extracellular fluid
Cytosol
2K+
ATP 2 3 4
Extracellular fluid
Na+
gradient
Na+/K+ ATPase
3 Na+
Cytosol K+
gradient 1
Solutes are transported across plasma membranes with the use of energy, from an area of lower concentration to an area of higher Concentration Sodium-potassium pump

42. Osmosis
Net movement of water through a selectively permeable membrane from an area of high concentration of water (lower concentration of solutes) to one of lower concentration of water
Water can pass through plasma membrane in 2 ways:
through lipid bilayer by simple diffusion
through aquaporins, integral membrane proteins

43. Fig 3.6
This Membrane is impermeable to the solute

44. Osmosis, Hydrostatic pressure and Osmotic pressure
Hydrostatic pressure: Pressure exerted by a liquid
Osmotic pressure: Due to impermeable solute particles (high conc.)

45. Tonicity and its effect on RBCS
Lysis, explode
Shrink

46. Clinical Application on solutions tonicity
Intravenous solutions:
Normally: Isotonic ( Saline 0.9% NaCl) and (Dextrose 5%)
Cerebral edema: hypertonic solution are useful
Dehydration: hypotonic solutions

47. Transport in Vesicles
Vesicle - a small spherical sac formed by budding off from a membrane
Endocytosis - materials move into a cell in a vesicle formed from the plasma membrane
three types: receptor-mediated endocytosis
phagocytosis
bulk-phase endocytosis (pinocytosis)
Exocytosis - vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane, releasing their contents into the extracellular fluid
Transcytosis - a combination of endocytosis and exocytosis

48. Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis1
Clathrin-coated
vesicle
pit
Binding
Vesicle formation
Receptor
Receptor-LDL
complex
Uncoated vesicle
Transport
Fusion with
endosome
Recycling
of receptors
to plasma
membrane
Uncoating
LDL particle
Plasma
Invaginated plasma
Endosome 2 3 4 5 1
Clathrin-coated
vesicle
pit
Binding
Vesicle formation
Receptor
Receptor-LDL
complex
Uncoated vesicle
Degradation
in lysosome
Lysosome
Transport
Fusion with
endosome
Recycling
of receptors
to plasma
membrane
Uncoating
LDL particle
Plasma
Invaginated plasma
Endosome
Digestive
enzymes 2 3 4 5 6 1
Clathrin-coated
pit
Binding
Receptor
Receptor-LDL
complex
LDL particle
Plasma
membrane
Invaginated plasma 1
Clathrin-coated
vesicle
pit
Binding
Vesicle formation
Receptor
Receptor-LDL
complex
Uncoated vesicle
Fusion with
endosome
Uncoating
LDL particle
Plasma
membrane
Invaginated plasma
Endosome 2 3 4
Transport 1
Clathrin-coated
vesicle
pit
Binding
Vesicle formation
Receptor
Receptor-LDL
complex
Uncoated vesicle
Uncoating
LDL particle
Plasma
membrane
Invaginated plasma 2 3 1
Clathrin-coated
vesicle
pit
Binding
Vesicle formation
Receptor
Receptor-LDL
complex
LDL particle
Plasma
membrane
Invaginated plasma 2
Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis

49. Phagocytosis

50. Bulk-phase Endocytosis