1. The Citric Acid Cycle & Oxidative phosphorylation

2. The Citric Acid Cycle Respiration Cellular respiration- 3 stages Organic fuel molecule  two carbon fragments in the form of the acetyl group of Acetyl coenzyme A (Acetyl CoA) Acetyl group  Citric acid cycle-  CO2-  energy released is conserved in the reduced electron carriers NADH & FADH2 Reduced coenzymes are themselves oxidized giving up protons and electrons

5. Production of Acetyl-CoA (Activated Acetate) Pyruvate is Oxidized to Acetyl-CoA and CO 2 : Overall reaction catalyzed by Pyruvate Dehydrogenase complex is an Oxidative decarboxylation – an irreversible oxidation process in which carboxyl group is removed from pyruvate as a molecule of CO2 and the two remaining carbon become the acetyl group of acetyl-CoA

7. The NADH formed in this reaction gives up a hydride (H: - ) to the respiratory chain, which carries the two electrons to oxygen. The transfer of electrons from NADH to oxygen ultimately generates 2.5 molecule of ATP per pair of electrons

8. The pyruvate dehydrogenase complex requires five Coenzymes: Dehydrogenation and decarboxylation of pyruvate requires sequential action of three different enzymes and five different coenzymes or prosthetic group- 1. Thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP) 2. Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) 3. CoenzymeA (CoA-SH) 4. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) 5. Lipoate

9. The pyruvate dehydrogenase complex consists of three distinct enzymes: 1. Pyruvate dehydrogenase (E1) 2. Dihydrolipoyl transacetylase (E2) 3. Dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase (E3)

11. (1)C-1 of Pyruvate is released as CO2 & C-2 which in pyruvate has the oxidation sate of an aldehyde, is attached to TPP as a hydroxyethyl group (2)The hydroxyethyl group is oxidized to the level of a carboxylic acid (Acetate); the two electrons removed in this reaction reduce the –S-S- of a lipoyl group on E2 to two thiol groups (-SH). The acetyl moiety is first esterified to one of the lipoyl –SH groups and (3) then transesterified to CoA to form acetyl-CoA Thus the energy of the oxidation drives the formation of a high energy thioester of acetate.

12. The remaining reactions catalyzed by the PDH complex (E3, in step (4)&(5)) are electron transfers necessary to regenerate the oxidized (disulfide) form of the lipoyl group of E2 to prepare the enzyme complex for another round of oxidation. The electrons removed from the hydroxyethyl group derived from pyruvate pass through FAD to NAD +.

13. The citric acid cycle has eight steps 1.Formation of citrate: the first reaction of the cycle is the condensation of acetyl-coA with oxaloacetate to form citrate, catalyzed by citrate synthase

14. 2. Formation of isocitrate via cis-Aconitate: The enzyme aconitase catalyzes the reversible transformation of citrate to isocitrate, through the intermediary formation of the tricarboxylic acid cis-aconitate.

15. 3. Oxidation of Isocitrate to α-Ketoglutarate and CO 2 : Isocitrate dehydrogenase catalyzes oxidative decarboxylation to isocitrate to from α-Ketoglutarate.

16. 4. Oxidation of α-Ketoglutarate to Succinyl-CoA and CO 2 : The next step is another oxidative decarboxylation, in which α-Ketoglutarate is converted to succcinyl-CoA and CO 2 by the action of α-Ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex; NAD+ serves as electron acceptor and CoA as the carrier of the succinyl group.

17. 5. Conversion of Succinyl-CoA to Succinate: Succinyl- CoA, like acetyl-CoA, has a thioester bond with a strongly negative standard free energy of hydrolysis. In the next step of TCA cycle, energy released in the breakage of this bond is used to drive the synthesis of phosphoanhydride bond in either GTP or ATP. Succinate is formed in this process. The enzyme that catalyzes this reversible reaction is called succinyl-CoA synthetase or succinic thiokinase.

18. 6. Oxidation of succinate to fumarate: The succinate formed from succinyl-CoA is oxidized to fumarate by flavoprotein succinate dehydrogenase.

19. 7. Hydration of Fumarate to Malate: The reversible hydration of fumarate to L-malate is catalyzed by Fumarase.

20. 8. Oxidation of Malate to Oxaloacetate: In the last reaction of the citric acid cycle, NAD-linked L-malate dehydrogenase catalyzes the oxidation of L-malate to oxaloacetate.

21. The energy of oxidations in the cycle is efficiently conserved A two carbon acetyl group entered the cycle by combining with oxaloacetate Two carbon atoms emerged from the cycle as CO2 from the oxidation of isocitrate and α-Ketoglutarate The energy released by these oxidations was conserved in the reduction of three NAD+ and one FAD and the production of one ATP or GTP Although the TCA cycle directly generates only one ATP per turn (in the conversion of succinyl-CoA to Succinate), the four oxidation steps in the cycle provide a large flow of electrons into the respiratory chain via NADH and FADH2 & thus lead to formation of a large number of ATP molecule during oxidative phosphorylation

22. The energy yield from the production of two molecules of pyruvate from one molecule of glucose in glycolysis is 2 ATP and 2 NADH In oxidative phosphorylation, passage of two electrons from NADH to O 2 drives the formation of about 2.5 ATP, & passage of two electrons from FADH 2 to O 2 yields about 1.5 ATP

23. When both pyruvate molecules are oxidized to 6 CO 2 via the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex and the citric acid cycle, and the electrons are transferred to O 2 via oxidative phosphorylation, as many as 32 ATP are obtained per glucose

26. Citric acid components are important biosynthetic intermediates In aerobic organisms, the citric acid cycle is an amphibolic pathway, one that serves in both catabolic and anabolic processes. Besides its role in the oxidative catabolism of carbohydrates, fatty acids and amino acids the cycle provides precursors for many biosynthetic pathways α-Ketoglutarate and oxaloacetate can serve as precursors of the amino acids aspartate and glutamate by simple transamination

27. Through aspartate and glutamate, the carbons of oxaloacetate and α-Ketoglutarate are then used to build other amino acids as well as purines and pyrimidine nucleotide Oxaloacetate is converted to glucose in gluconeogenesis Succcinyl-CoA is a central intermediate in the synthesis of the porphyrin ring of heme group, which serve as oxygen carriers (in hemoglobin and myoglobin) & electron carriers (in cytochromes) Citrate produced  various purposes

28. Anaplerotic reactions replenish citric acid cycle intermediates As intermediates of the citric acid cycle are removed to serve as biosynthetic precursors, they are replenished by anaplerotic reactions To maintain the intermediate almost constant Most common anaplerotic reactions -

29. The most important anaploretic reaction in mammalian liver & kidney is the reversible carboxylation of pyruvate by CO 2 to form oxaloacetate, catalyzed by pyruvate carboxylase

31. The Glyoxylate Cycle

32. Each turn of the glyoxylate cycle consumes two molecules of acetyl-CoA & produces one molecule of succinate, which is then available for biosynthetic purposes

34. Oxidative Phosphorylation & Photophosphorylation Oxidative phosphorylation is the culmination of energy yielding metabolism in aerobic organisms All oxidative steps in the degradation of carbohydrates, fats & amino acids converge at this final stage of cellular respiration, in which the energy of oxidation drives the synthesis of ATP.

35. Our current understanding of ATP synthesis in mitochondria and chloroplasts is bases on the hypothesis, introduced by Peter Mitchell in 1961, that transmembrane differences in proton concentration are the reservoir for the energy extracted from biological oxidation reactions. This chemiosmotic theory has been accepted as one of the great unifying principles of twentieth century biology

36. Oxidative phosphorylation & Photophosphorylation are mechanically similar in three respects 1.Both processes involve the flow of electrons through a chain of membrane bound carriers 2.The free energy made available by this ‘downhill’ (exergonic) electron flow is coupled to the ‘uphill’ transport of protons across a proton-impermeable membrane, conserving the free energy of fuel oxidation as a transmembrane electrochemical potential 3.The transmembrane flow of protons down their conc. gradient through specific protein channels provides the free energy for synthesis of ATP, catalyzed by a membrane protein complex (ATP synthase) that couples proton flow to phosphorylation of ADP

37. Electron transfer reactions in Mitochondria

39. Electrons are funneled to Universal Electron Acceptors

40. Electrons pass through a series of membrane bound carriers

41. Electron carriers function in multienzyme complexes Page 696 In PDF form 698

42. The energy released by electrons flowing through the electron transport chain is used to transport protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane, in a process called electron transport. This generates potential energy in the form of a pH gradient and an electrical potential across this membrane. This store of energy is tapped by allowing protons to flow back across the membrane and down this gradient, through a large enzyme called ATP synthase; this process is known as chemiosmosis.

43. Figure 19-8 (with explanation)