1. Secular revolutions? The Arab uprisings did not see the organised presence nor slogans associated with Islamism. In fact there was very little ‘religiosity’ on display in the demonstrations against authoritarian regimes. This was largely a surprise given the appeal and strength of Islamist movements. However, the post-uprising period has seen the emergence of Islamist movements as beneficiaries of the Spring.

2. Religious revivalism and social reform “In every age, the glaring disparities (real or perceived) between God’s will and the state of the world inspired religious reformers and movements who called Muslims to follow Islam more faithfully and reform their society” (John Esposito, 2002) –Religion as a tool for political mobilisation around very concrete issues. Religion has been often used for political purposes.

3. The state of the Muslim world The state of crisis of the Muslim world and, in particular of the Arab world, is perceived to be the main reason for the rise in religiosity, both political and spiritual. It was bound to come out at some stage… –The promise of religion has widespread appeal at times of crisis.

4. Radical Islam: a contemporary political project The Islamist doctrine is not a ready-made body of knowledge neglected in the past and now being re- adopted (Nazih Ayubi, 1990). –Islamists dig for sources and re-interpret them selectively, adapting older religious scholarship to contemporary needs. The ‘political’ matters. The necessity of a finding a legitimate system of governance is paramount. Imported Western ideologies such as socialism have failed. Religious symbolism helps because it is readily understood. The masses know the discourse and the symbolism.

5. Political quietism and Islam Traditional fundamentalism rested on a compromise between two social groups: the political ruling elites (be they sultans, emirs, generals or presidents) and the religious ulemas. –This alliance plays an important role in fusing politics and religion, but the two spheres can be distinguished to a certain extent. –Obedience to the political leader so as not to disrupt the harmony of the community. –This is the use of Islam made immediately after independence: ‘let the rulers rule, they know what they are doing and we as religious figures confirm they are doing everything according to religious precepts.’

6. Revolt and Islam The new generation of Islamists abandons the quietism of old to concentrate on a revolutionary political project of social change because of the state of crisis of their countries: –The religion is a tool for political action and more importantly of political change. Suddenly, the nature of political power matters. –Same texts, same symbolism, different actions. Why?

7. A new environment The religious establishment had sanctioned policies and endorsed rulers that were a failure in the long-term. –Economic crisis undermines the project of national cohesion. –Social change is catastrophic because it generates great poverty and great wealth: social inequality. –Foreign policy choices are disastrous for the Arab world.

8. Time of crisis? Need for new ‘prophets’ At times of crisis, the scholarly work and activism of people that had always questioned the previous course of action are resuscitated: –A radical programme of change is now perceived to be necessary. –The rise of ‘unofficial Islam’. –It is their turn now…