1. Subsidence

2. Land Subsidence Subsidence is human caused in 37 states Subsidence affects 15,000 sq. miles of the United States The cost nation wide is $100 million/year The world wide economic impact is astounding

3. Causes Tectonic Activity Dewatering Oil Extraction Mining Cave Collapse / Sinkholes Unconsolidated sediments

4. Tectonic Activity Easily recognized in coastal areas - gradual inundation Tectonic subsidence is generally slow compared to other causes

5. Tectonic Activity Vertical offset in Owens Valley 1872 Earthquake was 23 feet Surveys in the LA area began in the 1930's and reveal that sedimentary basins are going down and hills are going up –San Fernando Valley -0.045 feet/yr –Santa Monica Mountains +0.013 feet/yr –San Gabriel Mountains +0.02 feet/yr

6. Dewatering Sediments Occurs where water table is lowered due to drainage or pumping Peats have been drained in the Sacramento - San Joaquin Delta area since 1850 –12 to 14' subsidence –This is a problem when the areas are close to sea level Solution: reduce pumping rate to equal recharge rate

8. Cave Collapse / Sinkholes This is often caused by lowering of the water table and reduction in buoyant support of the rocks above the cave. Occurs in regions underlain by carbonate rocks –limestone, dolomite, and marble –All contain CaCO 3 or CaMg(CO 3 ) 2.both of which are easily dissolved in water

9. Subsidence depressions filled with water in central Polk County, Florida.

11. Cave Collapse / Sinkholes Winter Park, Florida 1981: –Cause: karst topography –100 m depression 13 m deep –$2 million in damage.

12. Cave Collapse / Sinkholes Hershey, Pennsylvania in 1949 –Cause: Dewatering at a limestone quarry created a cone of depression in water table –100 sinkholes appeared in an area over 26 km 2 2-7 m in diameter, 8 m deep. –No new sinkholes after pumping stopped

13. Cave Collapse / Sinkholes –near Johannesburg, S. Africa Cause: Dewatering of a gold mine 1962 – 1966: water table lowered 450 m Eight sinkholes > 50 m in diameter x 30 m deep formed in cone of depression

14. Cave Collapse / Sinkholes Yucatan Peninsula - The Cenotes of Chichén Itzá –Formation of a Cenote (say-NO-tay) –Sacred Cenote Used for ritual offerings

16. Application of Water to Soils of Low Water Content Irrigation water applied to low density alluvial sediments may cause subsidence

17. Application of Water to Soils of Low Water Content San Joaquin Valley (west side) –Test plots subside 10.5 feet in 27 months Flat surfaces become very irregular

18. Application of Water to Soils of Low Water Content San Joaquin Valley –Extensive damage to structures P. Gas & Electric transmission lines Gas and oil pipelines Drainage ditches Freeway requires special protection

19. The marks on this utility pole indicate the level of the surrounding land in preceding years. Between 1925 and 1975 this part of the San Joaquin Valley subsided almost 9 meters because of the withdrawal of groundwater and the resulting compaction of sediments. (Photo courtesy of U.S. Geological Survey)

20. Application of Water to Soils of Low Water Content San Joaquin Valley –Solution: Use sprinklers to get more even irrigation

21. Pressure Decline in Artesian Aquifers and Oil and Gas Fields Occurs in partially consolidated sedimentary deposits As much as 1 foot of subsidence for each 10 - 25 feet of water level decline –-2.8 feet in Lancaster between 1926 & 1965

22. Pressure Decline in Artesian Aquifers and Oil and Gas Fields Solutions: –Reduction of pumping rate to equal recharge rate –Injection of water in oil and gas fields or even artesian aquifers

23. Long Beach Subsidence - A Special Case History General Character of Subsidence –Significant subsidence began with oil field development in 1938 & 1939 East end of Terminal Island had subsided 4 feet by 1945 –Extensive diking and reconstruction has been necessary Cost exceeded $100,000,000

24. Long Beach Subsidence General Character of Subsidence –It greatly affected the L.B. port and naval shipyard Subsidence exceeded 29 feet Also included 10 feet of horizontal shift Caused very extensive damage

25. Long Beach Subsidence Postulated Causes –Oil reservoir compaction due to oil field pumping –Surface loading by buildings –Vibrations due to land use –Tectonic movement

26. Long Beach Subsidence Mechanics of Movement –Subsidence produced compression along axis of a bowl-shaped depression Tension occurred on the flanks –Sudden slippages on clay beds 1750' deep set off small earthquakes Oil wells were badly damaged 5 such earthquakes occurred

27. Long Beach Subsidence Subsidence Arrest –The field was repressured with water injection Subsidence decreased drastically –Some areas even rebounded Bench marks are now constantly watched