1. Stem Cells

2. Importance of Stem Cell Research

3. Stem Cell – Definition
A cell that has the ability to continuously divide and differentiate (develop) into various other kind(s) of cells/tissues
Stem cells are different from other cells of the body in that they have the ability to differentiate into other cell/tissue types. This ability allows them to replace cells that have died. With this ability, they have been used to replace defective cells/tissues in patients who have certain diseases or defects. 3

4. Stem Cell Characteristics
‘Blank cells’ (unspecialized)
Capable of dividing and renewing themselves for long periods of time (proliferation and renewal)
Have the potential to give rise to specialized cell types (differentiation)
Common variants, called polymorphisms, occur at greater than 1% frequency
I have given some examples of how exposure induced risk is modified in various ways
Typically the effects are modest in magnitude.
We are interested in how genetics modifies Exposure and exposure-related diseases Because….. 4

5. Kinds of Stem Cells Stem cell type Description Examples Totipotent
Each cell can develop into a new individual
Cells from early (1-3 days) embryos
Pluripotent
Cells can form any (over 200) cell types
Some cells of blastocyst (5 to 14 days)
Multipotent
Cells differentiated, but can form a number of other tissues
Fetal tissue, cord blood, and adult stem cells
Stem cells can be classified into three broad categories, based on their ability to differentiate. Totipotent stem cells are found only in early embryos. Each cell can form a complete organism (e.g., identical twins). Pluripotent stem cells exist in the undifferentiated inner cell mass of the blastocyst and can form any of the over 200 different cell types found in the body. Multipotent stem cells are derived from fetal tissue, cord blood and adult stem cells. Although their ability to differentiate is more limited than pluripotent stem cells, they already have a track record of success in cell-based therapies. Here is a current list of the sources of stem cells:
Embryonic stem cells - are harvested from the inner cell mass of the blastocyst seven to ten days after fertilization.
Fetal stem cells - are taken from the germline tissues that will make up the gonads of aborted fetuses.
Umbilical cord stem cells - Umbilical cord blood contains stem cells similar to those found in bone marrow.
Placenta derived stem cells - up to ten times as many stem cells can be harvested from a placenta as from cord blood.
Adult stem cells - Many adult tissues contain stem cells that can be isolated. 5

6. Totipotent Pluripotent Multi- potent
CLICK! This diagram will eventually show the entire range of development, from fertilized egg to mature cell types in the body.
Each cell in the 8-cell embryo, here in red, can generate every cell in the embryo as well as the placenta and extra-embryonic tissues. These cells are called CLICK! TOTIPOTENT stem cells. Why are they called totipotent? (wait for answers) Because one red cell can potentially make all necessary tissues for development. CLICK!
During In Vitro Fertilization, can parents choose whether their baby is going to be a boy or a girl? (wait) Yes, there is a widely-practiced procedure called pre-implantation genetic diagnosis, where one cell is removed from the 8-cell embryo and its DNA is examined. What might you look for when trying to identify the embryo’s sex? (wait) If there’s an X and Y chromosome it’s a boy and if there are two X’s it’s a girl. The parents can decide whether to implant it. Also parents with a genetic disease might want to see if their baby has any identifiable genetic disorders and decide whether to implant based on this information. Pre-implantation genetic diagnosis doesn’t destroy the embryo. Scientists are attempting to adapt this pre-implantation genetic diagnosis procedure and use it to create a stem cell line from one single TOTIPOTENT cell, without destroying the embryo.
The embryonic stem cells inside the blastocyst, here in purple, can generate every cell in the body except placenta and extra-embryonic tissues. These are called CLICK! PLURIPOTENT stem cells…why? (wait for answers) Because they can differentiate into all the 200+ cell types in the body, but they do not form the placenta. CLICK! Pluripotent stem cells can be isolated and grown in culture, or left to develop into more specialized cells in the body.
CLICK! Adult stem cells or tissue-specific stem cells have restricted lineages. Adult stem cells show up when the three distinct layers form in the 14-day-old embryo, and are present in the fetus, baby, child, and so forth. Adult just means they’ve gone further down their lineage pathway than the initial stem cells in the embryo. They are called CLICK! MULTIPOTENT stem cells because they will only become mature cells from the tissue in which they reside. Adult stem cells are present throughout your life and replace fully mature CLICK!, yet damaged and dying cells.
So to review (if time): TOTIPOTENT stem cells come from embryos that are less than 3 days old. These cells can make the TOTAL human being because they can form the placenta and all other tissues. PLURIPOTENT stem cells come from embryos that are 5-14 days old. Embryos and fetuses that are older than 14 days DO NOT contain pluripotent cells. These cells can form every cell type in the body but not the placenta. MULTIPOTENT stem cells are also called adult stem cells and these appear in the 14 day old embryo and beyond. At this point these stem cells will continue down certain lineages and CANNOT naturally turn back into pluripotent cells or switch lineages.
Totipotent
This cell
Can form the
Embryo and placenta
Pluripotent
This cell
Can just form the
embryo
Multi-
potent
Fully mature 6

7. Kinds of Stem Cells Embryonic stem cells five to six-day-old embryo
Tabula rasa
Embryonic germ cells
derived from the part of a human embryo or fetus that will ultimately produce eggs or sperm (gametes).
Adult stem cells
undifferentiated cells found among specialized or differentiated cells in a tissue or organ after birth
appear to have a more restricted ability to produce different cell types and to self-renew.

8. Pluripotent Stem Cells – more potential to become any type of cell

9. Multipotent stem cells
Multipotent stem cells – limited in what the cells can become

10. Embryonic Stem Cells
Mainly from IVF

11. Sexual Reproduction
Every cell contains a complete copy of “the blueprint of life”
DNA consists of two strands of nucleotides - 4 bases (A,G,T,C)
23 pairs of chromosomes
If unwound and tied together, human DNA in one cell would stretch ~ 5 feet, but would be only 50 trillionths of an inch wide!
Genes are specific sequences of DNA, each of which “codes” for a protein with a specific function
Genes are copied each time a cell divides, passing on the blueprint 11

12. Stages of Embryogenesis
cleavage
8-cell stage
The early stages of embryogenesis are the point at which embryonic stem cell lines are derived. The fertilized egg (day 1) undergoes cell division to form a 2-cell embryo, followed by 4-cell, etc. until a ball of cells is formed by the fourth day. The ball becomes hollow, forming the blastocyst. This is the stage at which pluripotent embryonic stem cell lines are generated. Following the blastocyst stage, the tissues of the embryo start to form and the cells become multipotent.
blastocyst
Blastocyst inner mass cells 12

13. Blastocyst Diagram

14. Adult Stem Cells Skin Fat Cells Bone marrow Brain
An undifferentiated cells found among specialized or differentiated cells in a tissue or organ after birth
Skin
Fat Cells
Bone marrow
Brain
Many other organs & tissues
1990s that scientists agreed that the adult brain does contain stem cells that are able to generate the brain's three major cell types—astrocytes and oligodendrocytes, which are non-neuronal cells, and neurons, or nerve cells.
A. Where are adult stem cells found, and what do they normally do?
Adult stem cells have been identified in many organs and tissues, including brain, bone marrow, peripheral blood, blood vessels, skeletal muscle, skin, teeth, heart, gut, liver, ovarian epithelium, and testis. They are thought to reside in a specific area of each tissue (called a "stem cell niche"). In many tissues, current evidence suggests that some types of stem cells are pericytes, cells that compose the outermost layer of small blood vessels. Stem cells may remain quiescent (non-dividing) for long periods of time until they are activated by a normal need for more cells to maintain tissues, or by disease or tissue injury.
Typically, there is a very small number of stem cells in each tissue, and once removed from the body, their capacity to divide is limited, making generation of large quantities of stem cells difficult. Scientists in many laboratories are trying to find better ways to grow large quantities of adult stem cells in cell culture and to manipulate them to generate specific cell types so they can be used to treat injury or disease. Some examples of potential treatments include regenerating bone using cells derived from bone marrow stroma, developing insulin-producing cells for type 1 diabetes, and repairing damaged heart muscle following a heart attack with cardiac muscle cells.
B. What tests are used for identifying adult stem cells?
Scientists often use one or more of the following methods to identify adult stem cells: (1) label the cells in a living tissue with molecular markers and then determine the specialized cell types they generate; (2) remove the cells from a living animal, label them in cell culture, and transplant them back into another animal to determine whether the cells replace (or "repopulate") their tissue of origin.
Importantly, it must be demonstrated that a single adult stem cell can generate a line of genetically identical cells that then gives rise to all the appropriate differentiated cell types of the tissue. To confirm experimentally that a putative adult stem cell is indeed a stem cell, scientists tend to show either that the cell can give rise to these genetically identical cells in culture, and/or that a purified population of these candidate stem cells can repopulate or reform the tissue after transplant into an animal.

15. Bone Marrow Found in spongy bone where blood cells form
4/28/2017
Bone Marrow
Found in spongy bone where blood cells form
Used to replace damaged or destroyed bone marrow with healthy bone marrow stem cells.
treat patients diagnosed with leukemia, aplastic anemia, and lymphomas
Need a greater histological immunocompatibility

16. Blood Cell Formation

17. Umbilical cord stem cells
4/28/2017
Umbilical cord stem cells
Also Known as Wharton’s Jelly
Adult stem cells of infant origin
Less invasive than bone marrow
Greater compatibility
Less expensive

18. Umbilical cord stem cells
Three important functions:
Plasticity: Potential to change into other cell types like nerve cells
Homing: To travel to the site of tissue damage
Engraftment: To unite with other tissues

19. Stem Cell Applications
Tissue repair
- nerve, heart, muscle, organ, skin
Cancers
Autoimmune diseases
- diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, MS

20. Tissue Repair
Regenerate spinal cord, heart tissue or any other major tissue in the body.

21. Heart Disease
Adult bone marrow stem cells injected into the hearts are believed to improve cardiac function in victims of heart failure or heart attack

22. Leukemia and Cancer
Studies show leukemia patients treated with stem cells emerge free of disease.
Injections of stem cells have also reduces pancreatic cancers in some patients.
Proliferation of white cells

23. Rheumatoid Arthritis
Adult Stem Cells may be helpful in jumpstarting repair of eroded cartilage.

24. Type I Diabetes Pancreatic cells do not produce insulin
Embryonic Stems Cells might be trained to become pancreatic islets cells needed to secrete insulin.

25. Stem cells in the adult brain:
Adult stem cells are found all over your body. Here are a few examples of places in the body with stem cells.
Who here has been told that brain cells never regenerate? (hands) Whoever told you that was misinformed! Relatively recently scientists discovered that in two specific parts of your brain, neural stem cells divide and differentiate to become neurons and glial cells, which support the growth of neurons. Without neural stem cells in the hippocampus, you would probably not be able to learn or remember.
The top right picture is a cross-section of the rat hippocampus, and neural stem cells are the blue dots, which divide and differentiate to form mature neurons (green) and astrocytes (red).
The bottom right picture is of cultured neural stem cells (just plain blue dots), and derived from those stem cells, neurons (blue dots surrounded by red) and oligodendrocytes (blue dots surrounded by green). 25

26. Technical Challenges Source - Cell lines may have mutations.
Delivery to target areas
Prevention of rejection
Suppressing tumors

27. Problems with Adult Stem Cells
Mutations can lead to leukemia

28. Human embryonic stem cells isolated from blastocyst stage human embryos
Cloning by somatic nuclear transfer
Induced pluripotent stem cells derived from human skin cells.

29. Definition of stem cells:
Self-renewal
Multi-potency

30. Totipotent Totipotent Totipotent
Lineage restricted Limited self-renewal

31. Differences between embryonic stem cells and adult stem cells
They have different self-renewal capabilities
Embryonic stem cells: near indefinite self-renewal
Adult stem cells: limited self-renewal
They have different differentiation potentials
Embryonic stem cells: differentiate into all cell types in an organism
Adult stem cells: differentiate into restricted cells types.
They differ in how they respond to external stimuli
Embryonic stem cells are readily to change upon stimulation
Adult cells emphasize on stability and need to be activated by cues, e.g. injuries.

32. Source of ES cells
Pluripotent
ES cells

33. Human blastocyst Human ES cells Inner cell mass
Mouse fibroblasts feeder layer

34. ES cells
Differentiation

36. Applications of Human pluripotent stem Cells
Basic Knowledge of Human Development
Models of Human Disease
Transplantation-Cell Replacement
Drug Development
Organogenesis

37. Scientific Challenges of Using Human ES Cells:
Challenges to cell-replacement and organ transplantation therapies:
Lack of cell type specific differentiation
Possible tumor formation
Immune rejection by recipients
Challenges to ES cells as models for studying human diseases
Do not know the genes responsible for the diseases
Can not create the mutations corresponding to human diseases

38. Human embryonic stem cells isolated from blastocyst stage human embryos
Cloning by somatic nuclear transfer
Induced pluripotent stem cells derived from human skin cells.

39. Somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT)
For establishing and studying models of human diseases
For generating patient-specific cells/organs for transplantation and repair

40. Therapeutic Cloning: Organogenesis

41. Therapeutic cloning: Studying Mechanisms of Diseases
Example: ALS
Human ES Cells: Studying the Cellular and Molecular Mechanisms of Disease

42. D B E C F A
Mark Denham & Richard Mollard

44. Human embryonic stem cells isolated from blastocyst stage human embryos
Cloning by somatic nuclear transfer
Induced pluripotent stem cells derived from human skin cells.

45. Can iPSCs replace hESCs?
induced pluripotent cells (iPSC) A combination of several genes can re-program skin fibroblasts into pluripotent cells
“Reprogramming”
Can iPSCs replace hESCs?
(Takahashi and Yamanaka Cell 2007, Yu Science 07, Cowan Science 07, Wernig Nature 07, Okita Nature 07)

46. new research – reprogramming cells

47. Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells
Every cell contains a complete copy of “the blueprint of life”
DNA consists of two strands of nucleotides - 4 bases (A,G,T,C)
23 pairs of chromosomes
If unwound and tied together, human DNA in one cell would stretch ~ 5 feet, but would be only 50 trillionths of an inch wide!
Genes are specific sequences of DNA, each of which “codes” for a protein with a specific function
Genes are copied each time a cell divides, passing on the blueprint 47

48. Why is Stem Cell Research So Important to All of Us?
Stem cells can replace diseased or damaged cells
Stem cells allow us to study development and genetics
Stem cells can be used to test different substances (drugs and chemicals)