1. The Scientific Method

2. Scientifically Solving a Problem Observe Define a Problem Review the Literature Observe some More Develop a Theoretical Framework and Formulate Hypotheses Choose a Research Design Collect Data Analyze Results Draw Conclusions

3. Conditions for Scientific Inquiry The three attitudes necessary for scientific inquiry are: Curiosity (Why and How?) Skepticism Objectivity

4. Nature of the Scientific Method The assumption that this is an orderly universe –Ruled by the laws of cause and effect –if seemingly identical situations arise seemingly results will occur

5. Observation: The Context of Discovery Research begins with forming an idea Your observations, beliefs, information and general knowledge –lead you to come up with new ideas

6. Naturalistic Observation Studying behavior in its natural setting –Experimental setting may distort the behavior –Lacks control over the situation –Does not give us causation

7. Defining The Problem Once you’ve developed your idea –you must be specific in defining your problem Otherwise you may be asking an unanswerable question

8. Operationalizing Concepts Must be operationalized –even ones you can not directly observe self esteem

9. Reviewing the Literature Knowledge of the relevant literature is essential because it provides: Background Suggests approaches Indicates what has already been done

10. Observing Some More It may be worthwhile to observe some more May help focus your research interest

11. Developing a Theoretical Framework Make a statement predicting your results Then clarify what each of the terms in the statement means within the framework of your research

12. Theories From our ideas we develop theories –Attempts to understand how brain, mind, behavior and the environment function together how they are related to each other –Organized set of concepts that explain a phenomenon or set of phenomenon –Expected to account for known facts and to generate new ideas and hypotheses

13. Hypothesis From our theories –we develop tentative and testable statement about the relationships between causes and consequences “if”_____ “then”______ Gives us certain outcomes from specific conditions –We then conduct research for verification If the hypothesis is proven untrue, then you must rethink the theory

14. Theories to Hypothesis to Theories There is a continual interaction between hypotheses and theories

15. The Context for Justification This is the phase in which evidence is brought to bear on the hypothesis –Using the experimental method

16. Choose a Research Design: Correlational Method Two variables are observed as they naturally exist to see if there is a relationship Does not imply cause and effect

17. Correlational Methods Correlations range from –1.0 to +1.0 Positive correlation –rise in one variable causes a rise in another variable Correlation does not imply causality

18. Choose a Research Design: Experimental Method This is a method of separating our causal factors It consists of running an experiment many times with only one variant If the results of the experiment are different –The one variant is most likely the cause

19. Testing our Hypothesis: Variables Any factor that varies Independent Variable Dependent Variable

20. The Experimental Method You manipulate the IV to look for a change in the DV You must be aware of alternative explanations –The more alternatives, the less confidence you have in your conclusions

21. Controlling the Situation Control is central It is essential in making behavior happen or not happen –Initiating behavior –Maintaining behavior –Ceasing behavior –Influencing Behavior Form, strength, rate

22. Confounds Occurs when something other than the experimenter purposefully introduces into a research setting changes the subjects behavior It adds confusion into the data

23. Remedy for Confounds You must anticipate and devise strategies to eliminate confounds –These are control procedures –Hold all variables and conditions other than those related to the hypothesis constant

24. The Goal We want to be able to say that a manipulation of our independent variable causes a change in our dependent variable

25. Analyzing the Results Once we have our data, we want to: Classify our results Identify Trends Recognize relationships Tabulate information

26. Normal Distribution

27. Shape of Distribution

28. Drawing Conclusions Once we have analyzed our data, we want to summarize our findings and draw a conclusion A good conclusion fits into an existing body of knowledge We are just supplying our piece of the puzzle

29. Reliability The consistency or dependability of behavioral data resulting from research It will be repeated under similar conditions at different times

30. Validity The information produced by research accurately measures the psychological variable in question

31. Alternative Method to Problems There are other methods besides the experimental method The Historical Method The Case Method Comparative and cross-cultural methods

32. Historical Methods Tracing the principal past developments that seem to have been directly significant in bringing about a social situation Prohibition

33. The Case Method Involves making a detailed examination and analysis of a particular issue or problem situation Case study of Typhoid Mary

34. The Comparative and Cross Cultural Methods Comparative Method –Look for patterns of social development or progress that would be universal –Language Cross-cultural Method –Consists of making detailed studies of the cultural patterns of a number of societies for the purpose of comparing the different ways in which people meet their similar needs