1. Chapter 24 Texas Elections American and Texas Government: Policy and Politics, 10/e Neal Tannahill

2. Case Study: Term Limitation In 2003, over 50 Democratic House members stopped the legislature from passing a Republican-backed redistricting plan by leaving the state. When the Republican-dominated legislature took up the issue of redistricting again during the special session the following summer, 12 of the Democratic senators repeated the tactics of their House colleagues by retreating to New Mexico and preventing a quorum in the Senate for weeks. While the Democrats’ antics made history, ultimately they did not prevent the Republicans from having their way. Eventually the Democrats returned to Austin and the redistricting plan passed. – The drama over congressional redistricting illustrates the importance of election rules and procedures. – The shape of legislative districts helps to determine who gets elected. – The Republican redistricting plan may help explain why the number of Texas Democrats elected to Congress dropped from 17 to 11 following the 2004 congressional elections.

3. The Long Ballot Texas has the long ballot, which is an election system that provides for the election of nearly every public official of any significance. The defenders of the long ballot believe that election is the best way to ensure that public officials remain accountable to the people. In contrast, critics of the long ballot argue that most Texans lack information to make intelligent voting choices on many down-ballot races.

4. Types of Elections General Elections – The general election is a statewide election to fill national, state, and county offices, held on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November of even-numbered years. – State law allows either split-ticket or straight-ticket voting. – The candidate with the most votes wins the general election, regardless of whether that candidate has a majority (more than 50 percent) of the ballots cast.

5. Types of Elections Primary Elections – State law requires the state’s major parties to choose their general election candidates in an intraparty election called a primary. The Texas primary system is a cross between an open and a closed primary. From the 1870s until the middle of the twentieth century, most of the state’s voters participated in the Democratic primary. In recent years, participation in the Republican primary has risen as the GOP has gained strength and the Republican primary has featured interesting and important races for president, governor, and senator. To win a primary election, a candidate must receive a majority of the votes cast. If no one receives a majority in a multiple-candidate race, the two highest finishers meet in a runoff. – The runoff primary is controversial. Critics believe that the runoff primary system is designed to prevent the election of minority candidates. In contrast, defenders of the runoff primary contend that the underlying issue is democracy: Should public officials be chosen by majority vote? Political science research lends some support to the view that the runoff primary is biased against minority candidates.

6. Types of Elections

7. The Presidential Delegate Selection Process – Every four years, Texans have the opportunity to participate in the Democratic and Republican parties’ presidential nomination process by selecting delegates to attend the two parties’ national conventions. – In Texas, the state Republican Party chooses delegates to the national party convention through a presidential preference primary. – The Texas Democratic Party selects national convention delegates through a system that combines the primary and caucus methods.

8. Types of Elections Local Elections – Texans also vote in local elections and special elections. – Under state law, local elections for city, school district, and special district officials must be held on one of four allowable election dates: the third Saturday in January, the third Saturday in May, the second Saturday in August, or the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November. – Most local contests in Texas are non-partisan elections. – Special elections may be used to approve local bond issues, which we discuss below, or to fill unexpected vacancies in the state legislature or the state’s congressional delegation. Special Elections – A special election is called at a time outside the normal election calendar. – Special elections may be used to approve local bond issues or to fill unexpected vacancies in the state legislature or the state’s congressional delegation.

9. Types of Elections Non-candidate Elections – Texas voters have the opportunity to participate in a number of non-candidate elections, including bond elections, recall elections, and referenda. – A bond election is an election for the purpose of obtaining voter approval for a local government going into debt. – Recall is a procedure allowing voters to remove elected officials from office before expiration of their terms. – Many cities (but not the state government) provide for initiative and referendum.

10. Election Districts Texas voters select public officials in a combination of at-large and single-member district elections. An at-large election is a method for choosing public officials in which every citizen of a political subdivision, such as a state or county, votes to select a public official. A district election is a method for choosing public officials in which a political subdivision, such as a state or county, is divided into districts, with each district electing one official.

11. Redistricting Redistricting is the process of redrawing the boundaries of legislative districts. The Texas legislature and local governing bodies charged with redistricting must follow certain legal/constitutional guidelines. Districts must contain roughly the same number of people. The U.S. Supreme Court dealt with the issue of reapportionment, which is the reallocation of legislative seats, in a series of cases, the most important of which were Baker v. Carr (1962) and Wesberry v. Sanders (1964). These cases established the doctrine of one-person, one-vote, which was the judicial ruling that the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution requires that legislative districts be apportioned on the basis of population. The Supreme Court’s one-person, one-vote rulings had a significant impact on policymaking in Texas. Because of one-person, one-vote, urban areas gained representation in the legislature and the state’s congressional delegation.

12. Redistricting One Person, One Vote – The U.S. Supreme Court addressed the issue of unequal district size in several cases. – The Court interpreted the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution to require that legislative districts be apportioned on the basis of population. The Voting Rights Act – The redistricting process is affected by the Voting Rights Act (VRA), which is a federal law designed to protect the voting rights of racial and ethnic minorities and to ensure their representation in office. – The VRA requires that state and local governments in areas with a history of voting discrimination (including Texas and most other southern states) submit redistricting plans to the federal Department of Justice for approval before they can go into effect. – Lower federal courts interpreted amendments to the VRA adopted in 1982 to require that the boundaries of legislative districts in areas with histories of racially polarized voting be drawn to maximize the election opportunities of minority candidates. – The U.S. Supreme Court has further complicated the redistricting process by declaring unconstitutional the drawing of districts with the main goal of increasing minority representation.

13. Redistricting The Politics of Redistricting – Despite the restrictions of federal law and court rulings, redistricting is a highly political process. – Legislative districts can be gerrymandered to advantage one political party over another or one candidate over another. – Political science research shows that gerrymandering can affect election outcomes. Reforming the Redistricting Process – Under the current system, redistricting leads to the creation of a large number of non­ competitive legislative seats. – Districts that are safe for one party or the other may produce representatives with little incentive to look out for the broader interests for their entire constituency. – Some reformers want the redistricting process taken out of the hand of elected officials and placed in the hands of a non-partisan commission instead.

14. Money Above all else, election campaigns are expensive. The largest single item in the big-time campaign budget is media, especially television. Campaign money comes from the candidates themselves and contributions from individuals and groups, especially those with a financial interest in the outcome of the election. Many groups funnel contributions through political action committees (PACs). Research shows that the probability of a citizen voting for a particular candidate increases as that candidate spends money. Nonetheless, money doesn’t guarantee victory.

15. Campaigns Big-time campaigns are long, drawn-out affairs. An important goal for many campaigns is to improve the candidate’s name recognition, especially if the candidate isn’t an incumbent. Besides building name recognition, campaigns attempt to create a favorable image for the candidate. Campaigns also attempt to create unfavorable impressions of their opponents. Politicians go negative because it often works.

16. The Voters Decide Political scientists identify a number of factors influencing voter choice. Political scientists believe that campaigns influence election outcomes, at least to some degree. In America, the relationship between elections and specific public policies is indirect at best. First, elections are fought over many issues. Second, voter choice is based on more than just issues. Third, election constituencies overlap. Finally, the constitutional system tempers the short-term impact of electoral change.

17. The Voters Decide Issues – Issues, especially high-profile issues, can affect voter choice. Incumbency – In most election contests, an incumbent enjoys a distinct advantage over a challenger. Campaigns – Help voters obtain information about candidates and issues and help raise the visibility of issues that benefit their own candidate and weaken their opposition. Candidate Image – Recent political science scholarship argues that voters’ perceptions of candidates’ personal images are important determinants of voter choices. Retrospective and Prospective Voting – Citizens also make voting decisions based on their evaluations of the past and expectations for the future. National Factors – National factors, such as presidential popularity and economic conditions, can affect voting decisions in Texas.