1. Introduction
Welcome to the Introduction to Special Operations Forces lesson on Special Operations Forces. In the first lesson of this course we defined Special Operations, discussed some of the characteristics, and used some historic examples to illustrate Special Operations. The focus of this lesson is to look at some of the characteristics, capabilities, and advantages of U.S. Special Operations Forces. This lesson is an overarching overview prior to more in depth lessons on the specific Special Operations Forces (SOF) units in each service.
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2. SOF are Different from Conventional Forces
Special Operations
Special Operations
Special Operations
To understand Special Operations warfare we need to answer “what are Special Operations Forces and what makes them different from conventional forces?” Understanding these differences is necessary to appropriately and effectively conduct planning, execute operations, resource, support, and integrate Special Operations without competition but as a complement to conventional forces and other governmental agencies. Most armed forces are designed as large organizations for employment against military threats. The equipment, training, and tactics are standardized for application to a wide range of operations. Conventional forces conduct operations with baseline units, usually against tactical level objectives, that lead to and support achievement of operational and strategic objectives. Special Operations Forces provide an option to directly or indirectly engage strategic and operational level objectives. Understanding Special Operations Forces is a foundation to follow- on learning about Special Operations utilization and team members.

3. Special Operations Forces (SOF) Definition
In general Special Operations Forces tend to be small, specially organized units manned by individuals carefully selected and trained:
1) To operate under physically demanding and psychologically stressful conditions
2) To accomplish missions using modified equipment and unconventional applications of tactics
3) To achieve operational and/or strategic level objectives or results.

4. SOF Designation Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta
Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff
General Martin Dempsey
TITLE 10 - ARMED FORCES
Subtitle A - General Military Law
PART I - ORGANIZATION AND GENERAL MILITARY POWERS
CHAPTER 6 – COMBATANT COMMANDS
Section 167. Unified combatant command for special operations forces With the advice and assistance of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the President, through the Secretary of Defense, shall establish under section 161 of this title a unified combatant command for special operations forces (hereinafter in this section referred to as the “special operations command”). The principle function of this command is to prepare special operations forces to carry out assigned missions.
ARSOF
So who determines what units are Special Operations Forces and therefore assigned to the United States Special Operations Command (USSOCOM)? The starting point was the 1987 legislation that created USSOCOM. In addition to identifying some of the specific duties and responsibilities of the command it also identified the initial Special Operations Forces from all the services. The legislation also stated that the Secretary of Defense had the authority to designate Special Operations Forces.
Joint Pub 1-02 defines Special Operations Forces as those active and reserve component forces of the military services designated by the Secretary of Defense and specifically organized, trained, and equipped to conduct and support Special Operations. A key point here is that designated Special Operations Forces are units and not people.
Active and Reserve Component forces of the Military Services designated by the Secretary of Defense and specifically organized, trained, and equipped to conduct and support special operations (JP 1-02).

5. SOF Designation Special Forces Rangers Fixed-Wing and Tilt-Wing
Special Operations Aviation
Military Information Support
Civil Affairs
SO Support Units
ARSOF
Fixed-Wing and Tilt-Wing
Special Tactics
ISR
Aviation FID
AFSOF
Sea-air-land teams (SEAL)
SEAL Delivery Vehicle Teams
Special Boat Teams
NAVSOF
Special Operations Regt
Special Operations Teams
MARSOF
For the Army those forces or units include:
- Special Forces, Rangers, Special Operations Aviation, Military Information Support Operations Command, Civil Affairs, and the special operations support units.
For the Navy it includes:
- SEALs, SEAL delivery vehicle teams, and special boat teams.
Air Force units consist of:
Fixed and tilt-wing aircraft, Special Tactics, Intelligence Surveillance Reconnaissance (ISR), and Aviation Foreign Internal Defense units.
And in the Marine Corps it includes, the Marine Special Operations Regiment which contains the Marine Special Operations Battalions and Teams.

6. SOF Characteristics
Throughout history, success by a small force against a strategic or operational objective usually has required units with combinations of special equipment, training, people, and/or tactics that go beyond those found in conventional units. These characteristics have allowed such units to be employed in unconventional ways for which the adversary often was unprepared. Almost all U.S. Special Operations Forces go through a recruitment, assessment, and selection process prior to assignment for training and qualification.

7. SOF Characteristics
Selected Special Operations Forces are regionally oriented and culturally attuned. This use to apply primarily to Army Special Forces and Navy SEALs, but it is becoming more of a normality for all Special Operations Forces. That is not to say that SOF can not operate world-wide but, having a specific regional orientation allows SOF to focus their training and education to develop specific cultural and language expertise. These skills are critical to the special operators’ ability to establish relationships and rapport with host nation or indigenous forces.

8. SOF Characteristics Nairobi, Kenya U.S. AMB to Kenya Scott Gration
Small SOF teams routinely operate in countries with a small to non-existent U.S. military presence. As such, they will quite often find themselves working in coordination with the U.S. country team from the U.S. Embassy. To do this they must possess the maturity and expertise to understand the role of the ambassador and his staff, along with the different interagency cultures. Gaining and maintaining the confidence of the ambassador and the country team is absolutely essential to the mission being accomplished. They must also be aware and have an understanding of the plethora of international and non-government agencies operating in different capacities throughout the world. This has earned SOF nicknames, such as Global Scouts and Warrior diplomats.
Another characteristic, or shortcoming, of SOF is its lack of organic logistics support. Special Operations Forces deploy with minimal logistical support. In many instances they are capable of using host nation or indigenous forces support. However, at some point they rely on the conventional service components for most sustained support with the exception of SOF-peculiar support that is provided by USSOCOM.

9. SOF Capabilities
Versatile, self-contained, and flexible to rapidly task organize, deploy and operate using unconventional methods with a low profile in ambiguous and swiftly changing scenarios.
Operate with regional foreign military and civilian authorities and populations.
Gain access to hostile and denied areas.
Conduct a wide range of operations.
Surgical, rapid, worldwide strike capability.
SOF provides the Joint Force commander options and capabilities that conventional forces simply do not possess. That is not to insinuate that SOF are better than conventional forces, only that they possess unique skills, equipment, and training that is often required to address an unconventional or ambiguous situation.
SOF routinely trains in the same areas and environments that they are going to operate in. This gives them advance knowledge of the environment, understanding of the culture, and the opportunity to cultivate and establish important relationships and trust. These practices lead to access, which a large conventional force can not routinely achieve.
Once access is gained, SOF can conduct a wide range of operations and activities in austere conditions using both direct and indirect methods to shape the environment and achieve the Joint Force commander’s operational and strategic objectives. SOF can do this while supporting either a legitimate host government or an insurgent force with equal capability.
U.S. Special Operations Forces operating in small teams are capable of operating for extended periods of time without extensive logistical support. They do this by either using their training to live off the land or by using the support and assistance of indigenous or host nation forces.
As we have previously stated U.S. Special Operations Forces operate globally in all environments. To do this effectively, SOF possesses the internal capability and equipment to communicate worldwide and normally in two or more media
Operate in austere environments without extensive support.
Communicate worldwide with organic equipment.

10. SOF Limitations
Personnel and units are few and not rapidly produced, replaced, or expanded.
Improper employment in conventional roles or inappropriate high-risk missions could deplete these resources rapidly.
Complement to and not a substitute for conventional forces.
Some units require significant conventional unit, host nation, or contracted support for extended operations.
While SOF have a number of advantages they also have some limitations which Joint Force commanders and staffs need to consider when planning and executing operations.
SOF is a limited asset and cannot be quickly replaced or reconstituted, nor can their capabilities be rapidly expanded. The improper employment of SOF in purely conventional roles or on inappropriate or inordinately high-risk missions runs the risk of rapidly depleting these resources.
Special Operations Forces are not a substitute for conventional forces (CF). In most cases SOF are neither trained, organized, nor equipped to conduct sustained conventional combat operations, and therefore, should not be substituted for CF that are able to effectively execute that mission.
SOF are typically provided to geographic combatant commands (GCC’s) and are not structured with robust means of logistic and sustainment capabilities. SOF must rely on the supported GCC’s service component commands for most support. This is particularly true when employing larger units and Army and Air Force Special Operations aviation units.

11. SOF Integration
SOF are most effective when fully integrated into planning and operations.
Integration enables the Joint Force Commander to take fullest advantage of conventional force and SOF core competencies.
SOF can operate independently or with conventional forces.
SOF should not be used for operations that conventional forces can accomplish.
Special Operations Forces are most effective when they are fully integrated into planning and operations, for example:
- When planning for the employment of SOF Joint Force commanders and their staffs need to ensure that:
- The mission is an appropriate activity for SOF
- Missions assigned to SOF support the overall Joint Force commanders campaign or operations plan
- That the missions or tasks assigned to SOF are feasible and fully coordinated.
- Required resources are available to execute and support SOF in the conduct of the mission or activity.
- The expected outcome of the mission justifies the anticipated or foreseen risks.
Circumstances may dictate that SOF support conventional forces, and conversely that conventional forces support SOF.
SOF Command and control elements are provided to the supported or the supporting conventional force commanders such as joint special operations task forces (JSOTFs) or combined joint special operations task forces (CJSOTFs) to conduct a specific special operation or execute Special Operations in support of a larger joint operation or theater campaign.
Special Operations Command and Control Elements (SOCCEs) synchronize integrated SOF/conventional force operations.
Special Operations Liaison Elements (SOLEs) coordinate, de-conflict, and integrate Special Operations air, surface, and subsurface operations with conventional air operations.
Exchange of SOF and conventional force liaison officers (LNOs) enhance situational awareness and facilitate staff planning and training for integrated operations.
Execute SO through SOF command and control elements.
Liaison Officer exchange with conventional forces.

12. The World at Night SOF Operating Environment
Since 9/11 Special Operations Forces have been heavily engaged in combat operations primarily in Iraq and Afghanistan. Outside of the declared theaters of authorized armed conflict, Special Operations Forces are a significant part of the Geographic Combatant Command’s theater engagement plans and other operations. Determining where to employ SOF is probably best illustrated by looking at a map of the globe, more specifically a map of the globe at night.
Obviously the lit areas of the global are the developed areas of the world and represent modernized and developed countries. The dark areas represent the sparsely to unpopulated areas of the world. They are often ungoverned areas. In some cases there is a legitimate government but it is either incapable or unwilling to govern. These dark areas are where the terrorist and terrorist organizations tend to hide, train and plan activities. These are the areas where USSOF are best utilized to apply their unique capabilities.

13. SOF Truths
Five truths were developed and first appeared in a HASC committee report entitled United States and Soviet Special Operations, 28 April John Collins developed the report and included these truths.
General Downing adopted and publicized four of these SOF Truths as a way to codify the need for quality people.
There are some truths that can be applied to Special Operations Forces, which serve to reflect the capabilities and limitations of Special Operations Forces.
The SOF truths were initially developed by Mr. John Collins in a report given to the House Armed Services Committee entitled United States and Soviet Special Operations in April In his report Mr. Collins initially developed and presented five truths about SOF to the committee.
A few years later in the early 1990’s the SOF truths found their way to the commander of the newly created United States Army Special Operations, Lieutenant General Wayne Downing. General Downing adopted and publicized four of the SOF truths as a way to codify the quality of those that serve in SOF.
In 2009 after almost eight years of continuous war the commander of USSOCOM adopted the 5th truth.
The 5th Truth was adopted by Admiral Olson 19 June 2009.

14. Humans Are More Important Than Hardware.
SOF Truths
Humans Are More Important Than Hardware.
The first SOF truth is humans are more important than hardware. The first SOF truth focuses on the individual or SOF Warrior. It reflects the need for motivated and highly capable individuals who are willing to give or do more than the average person. Special operations rely on relationships-- the individuals’ ability to forge relationships by establishing trust, understanding, and mutual respect with coalition, partner nation, or indigenous forces is paramount to mission accomplishment. He does this through his maturity, professionalism, and competency, not the equipment that he carries. That is not to say that SOF equipment does not enhance the individual but, the equipment is not what makes the human special. The first SOF truth puts the character and ability of the individual above his equipment. Success or failure depends on the human element.

15. Quality is More Important Than Quantity.
SOF Truths
Quality is More Important Than Quantity.
The second SOF truth is quality is more important than quantity. In some military applications, mass and superior numbers are important operational principles to be considered during operational planning. However, the nature of the SOF mission does not place a high premium on numbers. SOF generally operate with smaller units to achieve disproportionate results while limiting their exposure. The quality of each operator must be of the highest standard.
In our first lesson we discussed the fact that strategic or operation level objectives are often more susceptible to a small capable force than they are to a larger one.
Consider for example, the Son Tay prison raid to free American prisoners of war outside of Hanoi in November Even though the mission was launched and conducted deep into denied enemy territory the ground assault force consisted of only 56 assaulters. The Son Tay raid is an example of what 56 highly trained, competent, and motivated individuals with a well rehearsed plan can accomplish against a superior force.

16. SOF Truths Special Operations Forces Cannot be Mass-Produced.
Army Special Forces Soldier: months
160th SOAR Pilot: 2 years to fully mission qualified
Navy SEALs: 2 years
The third SOF truth is special operations forces cannot be mass-produced. Each operator requires time, individual attention, and focused effort to produce. The time to develop a special operator varies widely. In fact, depending on the specific function the operator will be performing, the training can last anywhere from 12 to 24 months to produce a basic mission qualified special operator. After completing the basic qualification training it will take several years of operations, mentoring and additional specialized training to progress from a basic qualified to experienced operator. In addition to the time element, training a special operator requires a significant resource investment.
AFSOF Special Tactics Operator: 2 years
Marine Special Operator: months

17. SOF Truths Competent Special Operations Forces Cannot be
Created After Emergencies Arise.
The fourth SOF truth is competent special operations forces cannot be created after emergencies arise. Emergencies require immediate action by Special Operations Forces already trained and prepared in anticipation of the emergency. Consider the previous truth, that SOF cannot be mass-produced and the amount of time, 12 to 24 months to produce a special operator, there is not time to create a special operator after the emergency. The word competent is a key word in this truth. It infers that the right individuals have to be identified, recruited, selected, and trained to the established standards rather than a reduced standard.
The United States had Special Operations Forces inserted by MH-47s and on the ground conducting unconventional warfare operations with Northern Alliance forces against the Taliban within about three weeks following the 9/11 attacks. Working in small teams supported by air power the United States was able to remove the Taliban from power in just a few weeks. The capability to plan, deploy, insert and conduct operations in such a short amount of time was critical to defeating the Taliban in the initial days of the global war on terrorism. The United States could not afford to wait up to two years to create the Special Operations capability applied in the initial stages of Operation ENDURING FREEDOM.

18. 5th SOF Truth Most Special Operations require non-SOF Support.
In June of 2009 the commander of the United States Special Operations Command, Admiral Eric Olson adopted the 5th SOF truth; most Special Operations require non-SOF support.
Admiral Olson explained his reasoning in an stating;
“The SOF Truths have provided time-tested guidance to the Special Operations community for daily activities as well as long-range planning. When they were originally penned, there was a fifth truth that was never published — ‘Most Special Operations require non-SOF assistance.’ It’s being included now so that we all understand the importance of force enablers and the contributions they make to mission success. To think otherwise would levy unrealistic expectations as to the capabilities SOF bring to the fight.
“The operational effectiveness of our deployed forces cannot be, and never has been, achieved without being enabled by our joint service partners. The support of Air Force, Army, Marine, Navy engineers, explosive ordnance disposal technicians, intelligence analysts, and the numerous other professions that contribute to SOF have substantially increased our capabilities.

19. Conclusion Small teams, regional and cultural expertise.
Capable of achieving effects at the operational or strategic levels.
Limited asset, not easy to replace with limited organic logistics capability.
Humans Are More Important Than Hardware.
Quality is More Important Than Quantity.
Special Operations Forces Cannot be Mass-Produced.
Competent Special Operations Forces Cannot be Created After Emergencies Arise.
Most Special Operations require non-SOF Support.
To summarize this lesson we identified the different forces from each of the services designated as SOF. We also determined that Special Operations Forces are either designated in law, more specifically Title 10, U.S. Code, section 167, or by the Secretary of Defense.
We looked at some of the characteristics, capabilities, and limitations of SOF and discussed how they are different from conventional forces.
Finally, we presented the five SOF Truths which apply to SOF. Understanding the capabilities, benefits, limitations, and how SOF supports the Joint Force commander are essential elements in planning and conducting joint operations. Remember, Special Operations complement rather than substitute conventional forces and should be planned for during the initial planning phases, not as an afterthought.
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