1. Weathering and Soil

2. Earth’s External Processes  weathering—the physical breakdown and chemical decomposition of rock  mass wasting—the transfer of rock and soil downslope under the influence of gravity  erosion—the physical removal of material by water, wind, ice, or gravity

3. Weathering Two types: 1. mechanical weathering—breaking of rocks into smaller pieces  types of mechanical weathering  frost wedging - alternate freezing and thawing of water in fractures and cracks promotes the disintegration of rocks

4. Frost Wedging

5. Weathering  unloading  exfoliation of igneous and metamorphic rocks at the Earth’s surface due to a reduction in confining pressure  thermal expansion  alternate expansion and contraction due to heating and cooling  biological activity  disintegration resulting from plants and animals

6. Sheeting and Exfoliation Due to Unloading Yosemite National Park, California

7. Exfoliation of Igneous Rocks

8. Weathering 2. Chemical weathering  breaks down rock components and internal structures of minerals  the most important agent is water  responsible for transport of ions and molecules involved in chemical processes

9. Weathering  Major processes of chemical weathering  dissolution  aided by small amounts of acid in the water  oxidation  any reaction when electrons are lost from one element  hydrolysis  the reaction of any substance with water  a hydrogen ion attacks and replaces other ions

10. Weathering  Alterations caused by chemical weathering  decomposition of unstable minerals  formation or retention of stable materials  physical changes such as the rounding of corners or edges

11. Products of Weathering

12. Rates of Weathering Factors affecting weathering  surface area  rock characteristics  rocks containing calcite (marble and limestone) readily dissolve in weakly acidic solutions  silicate minerals weather in the same order as their order of crystallization

13. Surface Area and Chemical Weathering

14. Rates of Weathering  Climate  temperature and moisture characteristics  chemical weathering is most effective in areas of warm, moist climates  Differential weathering  rocks do not weather uniformly due to regional and local factors  results in many unusual and spectacular rock formations and landforms

15. Spheroidal Weathering of Extensively Jointed Rock

16. Differential Weathering in Bryce Canyon National Park, Utah

17. Soil  soil = mineral and organic matter + water + air  rock and mineral fragments produced by weathering (regolith) that support the growth of plants  humus (decayed animal and plant remains) is a small, but essential component

18. Composition of “Good” Soil

19. Soil  Factors controlling soil formation  parent material  residual versus transported soil  time  amount of time for soil formation varies depending on geologic and climatic conditions

20. Soil  climate  most influential control of soil formation  key factors are temperature and precipitation  plants and animals  influence the soil’s physical and chemical properties  topography  steep slopes often have poorly developed soils  the optimum terrain is a flat-to-undulating upland surface

21. Variations in Soil Development

22. Soil  The soil profile  soil-forming processes operate from the surface downward  vertical differences are called horizons, which are zones or layers of soil  O horizon—organic matter  A horizon—organic and mineral matter - high biological activity - O and A horizons make up topsoil

23. Soil  E horizon—little organic matter  Zone of eluviation and leaching  B horizon—zone of accumulation  C horizon—partially altered parent material  Collectively, the O, A, E, and B horizons make up solum, or “true soil”

24. Idealized Soil Profile

25. Soil Profile Showing Different Horizons

26. Soil  Classifying soils  variations in soil formation over time and distances has led to a great variety of recognized soil types  groups have been established using common characteristics  in the United States, a system was devised  Soil Taxonomy

27. Soil  Soil Taxonomy  emphasis is placed on physical and chemical properties  six (6) hierarchical categories exist  descriptive names are derived from Latin and Greek  12 basic soil orders are recognized

28. Basic Soil Orders

29. Soil  Soil erosion  part of the natural recycling of all Earth materials  natural rates of soil erosion depend on:  soil characteristics  climate  slope  type of vegetation

30. Soil Erosion Where Vegetation Is Lacking

31. Soil  in many regions, soil erosion is much greater than the rate of soil formation  sedimentation and chemical pollution  related to excessive soil erosion  occasionally, soil particles are contaminated with pesticides