1. Chapter 3 Ecosystems

2. Hierarchy of Ecology Organisms Populations Communities Ecosystems Biosphere

3. Fig. 3-3, p. 52 Insects 751,000 Other animals 281,000 Fungi 69,000 Prokaryotes 4,800 Plants 248,400 Protists 57,700 Known species 1,412,000

4. Ecology A.Ecology: study of interactions among organisms and their abiotic environments 1) organism: any form of life 2) species: group of organisms with similar appearance (?) and ability to reproduce among themselves a) estimated 5 to 100 million species (1.4 million known) 3) population: group of individuals of a certain species in a given area

5. 4) habitat: where a population lives 5) community: all populations in a given area 6) ecosystem: all species and abiotic environment and their interactions 7) biosphere: all ecosystems on earth

6. Populations Genetic diversity – In most natural populations individuals vary slightly in their genetic makeup. Figure 3-5

7. 8) ecotone: transition between ecosystems a) edge effect:: an ecotone often has more biodiversity and higher population density 9) climate: long term weather 10) biomes: all ecosystems of a certain type

8. Fig. 3-6, p. 54 Lithosphere (crust, top of upper mantle) Rock Soil Vegetation and animals Atmosphere Oceanic Crust Continental Crust Lithosphere Upper mantle Asthenosphere Lower mantle Mantle Core Biosphere Crust Crust (soil and rock) Biosphere (living and dead organisms) Hydrosphere (water) Atmosphere (air)

9. Biosphere Atmosphere – 4 to 10 miles thick Stratosphere – 2 nd layer, contains ozone to filter most of UV Hydrosphere – Water: liquid, solid, vapor Lithosphere – Crust and upper mantle

10. Fig. 3-8, p. 55 Absorbed by ozone Visible Light Absorbed by the earth Greenhouse effect UV radiation Solar radiation Energy in = Energy out Reflected by atmosphere (34% ) Radiated by atmosphere as heat (66%) Heat radiated by the earth Heat Troposphere Lower Stratosphere (ozone layer)

11. The Sun 1) fusion (H = 72%; He = 28%) 2) 93,000,000 miles, 8 minutes 3) 4.2 million tons converted to energy every second

12. The Sun 4) of all incoming solar radiation (100%), - 34% is reflected back by clouds, dust, oceans, land - 66% heats air, land, evaporates water -.023% is used in photosynthesis 5) most of the 66% leaves earth as IR (heat) - process of heat loss is slowed by natural greenhouse effect (H 2 O, CO 2, CH 4 etc) - without natural greenhouse effect life could not exist

13. Green House Effect Geenhouse effect* If bond vibrational frequency is “in phase” with IR : bond absorbs energy, speeds up vibration and releases energy in all directions, some of which go back to surface.

14. Sustaining Life on Earth One-way flow of energy Cycling of matter Gravity

15. 100–125 cm (40–50 in.) Coastal mountain ranges Sierra Nevada Mountains Great American Desert Coastal chaparral and scrub Coniferous forest Desert Coniferous forest Prairie grassland Deciduous forest 1,500 m (5,000 ft.) 3,000 m (10,000 ft.) 4,600 m (15,000 ft.) Average annual precipitation Mississippi River Valley Appalachian Mountains Great Plains Rocky Mountains below 25 cm (0–10 in.) 25–50 cm (10–20 in.) 50–75 cm (20–30 in.) 75–100 cm (30–40 in.)

16. Sun Oxygen (O 2 ) Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) Secondary consumer (fox) Soil decomposers Primary consumer (rabbit) Precipitation Falling leaves and twigs Producer Producers Water

17. Tolerance Limits range of tolerance a) tolerance limits dam

18. Limit of Tolerance b) organisms may acclimate to changing conditions but once they cross over the threshold (tolerance limit), they may suddenly die c) limiting factor: one factor that is more important than others in limiting population

19. Zone of intolerance Optimum range Zone of physiological stress Zone of physiological stress Zone of intolerance TemperatureLowHigh No organisms Few organisms Upper limit of tolerance Population size Abundance of organisms Few organisms No organisms Lower limit of tolerance

20. Sugar Maple

21. Science Focus: Have You Thanked the Insects Today? Pollinators Eat other insects Loosen and renew soil Reproduce rapidly Very resistant to extinction

22. Importance of Insects

23. Producers Photosynthesis 6CO 2 + 6H 2 O + solar energy  C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6O 2 Chemosynthesis – Some deep ocean organisms near hydrothermal vents draw energy from hydrogen sulfide (H 2 S) to produce carbohydrates

24. The Biotic Components of Ecosystems Producers (autotrophs) Photosynthesis Consumers (heterotrophs) Aerobic respiration Decomposers

25. Trophic Levels Primary consumer (herbivore) Secondary consumer (carnivore) Tertiary consumer Omnivore Detritivores and scavengers Decomposers

26. Biodiversity Genetic diversity Species diversity Ecological diversity Functional diversity

27. Connections: Food Webs and Energy Flow in Ecosystems Food chains Food webs

28. Fig. 3-14, p. 63 Squid Fish Herbivorous zooplankton Krill Sperm whale Petrel Adelie penguin Emperor penguin Leopard seal Crabeater seal Blue whale Elephant seal Killer whale Phytoplankton Carnivorous plankton Humans

29. Ecological Pyramids Pyramid of energy flow Ecological efficiency Pyramid of biomass Pyramid of numbers Fig. 4-20 p. 79

30. 10 Heat Tertiary consumers (human) Usable energy available at each trophic level (in kilocalories) Heat Secondary consumers (perch) 100 Fig. 3-15, p. 63 Heat Decomposers Heat Primary consumers (zooplankton) 1,000 Heat Producers (phytoplankton) 10,000 Stepped Art

31. Some Ecosystems Produce Plant Matter Faster Than Others Do Gross primary productivity (GPP) Net primary productivity (NPP) –Ecosystems and life zones differ in their NPP

32. Estimated Annual Average NPP in Major Life Zones and Ecosystems

33. Connections: Matter Cycling in Ecosystems Biogeochemical cycles Hydrologic cycle (H 2 O) Atmospheric cycles (C, N) Sedimentary cycles (P, S)

34. Water Cycle 1)Evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation, infiltration, percolation (aquifer) runoff 2)Absolute humidity = g water/kg air 3)Relative humidity = (amount of water in a certain mass of air/max amount possible) x 100 4)Condensation nuclei: volcanic ash, dust, smoke 5)Dew point: temp at which condensation occurs

35. Hydrologic (Water) Cycle

36. Science Focus: Water’s Unique Properties Properties of water due to hydrogen bonds between water molecules: –Exists as a liquid over a large range of temperature –Changes temperature slowly –High boiling point: 100˚C –Adhesion and cohesion –Expands as it freezes –Solvent –Filters out harmful UV

37. Fig. 3-17, p. 66 Transpiration from plants Evaporation from land Precipitation to land Precipitation to ocean Evaporation from ocean Condensation Infiltration and percolation into aquifer Surface runoff Surface runoff Runoff Global warming Reduced recharge of aquifers and flooding from covering land with crops and buildings Aquifer depletion from overpumping Increased flooding from wetland destruction Point source pollution Groundwater movement (slow) Lakes and reservoirs Ice and snow Ocean Processes Processes affected by humans Reservoir Pathway affected by humans Natural pathway

38. The Carbon Cycle (Terrestrial)

39. The Carbon Cycle (Aquatic)

41. The Nitrogen Cycle

42. Nitrogen Cycle

43. The Phosphorus Cycle

44. Fig. 3-21, p. 71 Processes Reservoir Pathway affected by humans Natural pathway Phosphates in mining waste Phosphates in sewage Animals (consumers) Bacteria Plants (producers) Phosphates in fertilizer Phosphate dissolved in water Phosphate in shallow ocean sediments Phosphate in deep ocean sediments Ocean food webs Phosphate in rock (fossil bones, guano) Sea birds Plate tectonics Erosion Runoff

45. The Sulfur Cycle

46. How Do Ecologists Learn About Ecosystems? Field research Remote sensing Geographic information systems (GIS) Laboratory research

47. Ecosystem Services and Sustainability