1. How is the Corona Heated? (Waves vs. Reconnection) A. A. van Ballegooijen, S. R. Cranmer, and the UVCS/SOHO Team Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics Why is the “fast solar wind” fast and the “slow solar wind” slow?

2. How is the Corona Heated? (Waves vs. Reconnection) A. A. van Ballegooijen, S. R. Cranmer, and the UVCS/SOHO Team Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics Why is the “fast solar wind” fast and the “slow solar wind” slow? Outline: Background Alfvén wave generation (thin flux tubes) Motivations from “dual” nature of wind MHD turbulence extended heating

3. How is the corona heated? —A. van Ballegooijen Why is the fast (slow) solar wind fast (slow)? —S. Cranmer Solar Wind 11 / SOHO-16 Whistler, Canada, June 15, 2005 Coronal heating mechanisms A surplus of proposed models! (Mandrini et al. 2000; Aschwanden et al. 2001)

4. How is the corona heated? —A. van Ballegooijen Why is the fast (slow) solar wind fast (slow)? —S. Cranmer Solar Wind 11 / SOHO-16 Whistler, Canada, June 15, 2005 Coronal heating mechanisms A surplus of proposed models! (Mandrini et al. 2000; Aschwanden et al. 2001) Where does the mechanical energy come from? vs.

5. How is the corona heated? —A. van Ballegooijen Why is the fast (slow) solar wind fast (slow)? —S. Cranmer Solar Wind 11 / SOHO-16 Whistler, Canada, June 15, 2005 Coronal heating mechanisms A surplus of proposed models! (Mandrini et al. 2000; Aschwanden et al. 2001) Where does the mechanical energy come from? How is this energy coupled to the coronal plasma? waves shocks eddies (“AC”) vs. twisting braiding shear (“DC”) vs.

6. How is the corona heated? —A. van Ballegooijen Why is the fast (slow) solar wind fast (slow)? —S. Cranmer Solar Wind 11 / SOHO-16 Whistler, Canada, June 15, 2005 Coronal heating mechanisms A surplus of proposed models! (Mandrini et al. 2000; Aschwanden et al. 2001) Where does the mechanical energy come from? How is this energy coupled to the coronal plasma? How is the energy dissipated and converted to heat? waves shocks eddies (“AC”) vs. twisting braiding shear (“DC”) vs. reconnectionturbulence interact with inhomog./nonlin. collisions (visc, cond, resist, friction) or collisionless

7. How is the corona heated? —A. van Ballegooijen Why is the fast (slow) solar wind fast (slow)? —S. Cranmer Solar Wind 11 / SOHO-16 Whistler, Canada, June 15, 2005 Coronal heating mechanisms A surplus of proposed models! (Mandrini et al. 2000; Aschwanden et al. 2001) Where does the mechanical energy come from? How is this energy coupled to the coronal plasma? How is the energy dissipated and converted to heat? waves shocks eddies (“AC”) vs. twisting braiding shear (“DC”) vs. reconnectionturbulence interact with inhomog./nonlin. collisions (visc, cond, resist, friction) or collisionless

8. How is the corona heated? —A. van Ballegooijen Why is the fast (slow) solar wind fast (slow)? —S. Cranmer Solar Wind 11 / SOHO-16 Whistler, Canada, June 15, 2005 G-band bright points: thin flux tubes 100–200 km

9. How is the corona heated? —A. van Ballegooijen Why is the fast (slow) solar wind fast (slow)? —S. Cranmer Solar Wind 11 / SOHO-16 Whistler, Canada, June 15, 2005 Kink-mode waves in thin flux tubes splitting/merging torsion longitudinal flow/wave bending (transversal wave) Below a chromospheric “merging height” the 1-2 kG flux tubes are transversely shaken, exciting waves (Spruit 1981): buoyancy term (cutoff period: 9 to 12 min.)

10. How is the corona heated? —A. van Ballegooijen Why is the fast (slow) solar wind fast (slow)? —S. Cranmer Solar Wind 11 / SOHO-16 Whistler, Canada, June 15, 2005 Kink-mode waves in thin flux tubes splitting/merging torsion longitudinal flow/wave bending (transversal wave) Below a chromospheric “merging height” the 1-2 kG flux tubes are transversely shaken, exciting waves (Spruit 1981): In reality, it’s not incompressible... (Hasan et al. 2005; astro-ph/0503525) buoyancy term (cutoff period: 9 to 12 min.)

11. How is the corona heated? —A. van Ballegooijen Why is the fast (slow) solar wind fast (slow)? —S. Cranmer Solar Wind 11 / SOHO-16 Whistler, Canada, June 15, 2005 Thin tubes merge into supergranular funnels Peter (2001) Tu et al. (2005)

12. How is the corona heated? —A. van Ballegooijen Why is the fast (slow) solar wind fast (slow)? —S. Cranmer Solar Wind 11 / SOHO-16 Whistler, Canada, June 15, 2005 Fast & slow solar wind Ulysses confirmed the dual nature of the wind vs. solar cycle. McComas et al. (2000)McComas et al. (2002) Solar minimum: Solar maximum:

13. How is the corona heated? —A. van Ballegooijen Why is the fast (slow) solar wind fast (slow)? —S. Cranmer Solar Wind 11 / SOHO-16 Whistler, Canada, June 15, 2005 Source regions High-speed wind: strong connections to the largest coronal holes MIN MAX v > 550 km/s 350 < v < 550 km/s v < 350 km/s Luhmann et al. (2002) applied the Wang & Sheeley (1990) speed/flux-expansion relation to several solar cycles of PFSS reconstructions... Low-speed wind: still no agreement on the full range of coronal sources: hole/streamer boundary (streamer “edge”) streamer plasma sheet (“cusp/stalk”) small coronal holes active regions

14. How is the corona heated? —A. van Ballegooijen Why is the fast (slow) solar wind fast (slow)? —S. Cranmer Solar Wind 11 / SOHO-16 Whistler, Canada, June 15, 2005 Source regions High-speed wind: strong connections to the largest coronal holes MIN MAX v > 550 km/s 350 < v < 550 km/s v < 350 km/s Luhmann et al. (2002) applied the Wang & Sheeley (1990) speed/flux-expansion relation to several solar cycles of PFSS reconstructions... Low-speed wind: still no agreement on the full range of coronal sources: hole/streamer boundary (streamer “edge”) streamer plasma sheet (“cusp/stalk”) small coronal holes active regions

15. How is the corona heated? —A. van Ballegooijen Why is the fast (slow) solar wind fast (slow)? —S. Cranmer Solar Wind 11 / SOHO-16 Whistler, Canada, June 15, 2005 Flux tube expansion: solar minimum A(r) ~ B(r) –1 ~ r 2 f(r) Banaszkiewicz et al. (1998)

16. How is the corona heated? —A. van Ballegooijen Why is the fast (slow) solar wind fast (slow)? —S. Cranmer Solar Wind 11 / SOHO-16 Whistler, Canada, June 15, 2005 Flux tube expansion: equation of motion Why is the solar wind speed anticorrelated with the mid-coronal f(r) ? Let’s begin by examining how f(r) affects radial momentum conservation: Extrema in F(r) are potential Parker sonic/critical points. Vasquez et al. (2003) found that the global minimum in F(r) gives the true r crit We can compute minima in F(r) for a simple isothermal corona (T = 1.75 MK); a more empirically constrained T(r,θ) gives similar results.

17. How is the corona heated? —A. van Ballegooijen Why is the fast (slow) solar wind fast (slow)? —S. Cranmer Solar Wind 11 / SOHO-16 Whistler, Canada, June 15, 2005 Flux tube expansion: solar minimum A(r) ~ B(r) –1 ~ r 2 f(r) Banaszkiewicz et al. (1998)

18. How is the corona heated? —A. van Ballegooijen Why is the fast (slow) solar wind fast (slow)? —S. Cranmer Solar Wind 11 / SOHO-16 Whistler, Canada, June 15, 2005 Flux tube expansion: critical point

19. How is the corona heated? —A. van Ballegooijen Why is the fast (slow) solar wind fast (slow)? —S. Cranmer Solar Wind 11 / SOHO-16 Whistler, Canada, June 15, 2005 Heating above & below the critical point Why does the critical point matter? Leer & Holzer (1980), Pneuman (1980): Even if heating is the same (hole vs. streamer), moving r crit changes the above! vs. SUBSONIC coronal heating: “puffs up” scale height, draws more particles into wind: M u SUPERSONIC coronal heating: subsonic region is unaffected. Energy flux has nowhere else to go: M same, u

20. How is the corona heated? —A. van Ballegooijen Why is the fast (slow) solar wind fast (slow)? —S. Cranmer Solar Wind 11 / SOHO-16 Whistler, Canada, June 15, 2005 Heating above & below the critical point Why does the critical point matter? Leer & Holzer (1980), Pneuman (1980): Even if heating is the same (hole vs. streamer), moving r crit changes the above! Also, changing f(r) changes where the Alfven wave flux is the strongest: But how is an increased “Alfven wave flux” linked to actual heating? vs. SUBSONIC coronal heating: “puffs up” scale height, draws more particles into wind: M u SUPERSONIC coronal heating: subsonic region is unaffected. Energy flux has nowhere else to go: M same, u F A   V A  B r F A (crit) B r (crit) 1 F A  B r  f ---------  --------  ---- Hypothesis: all flux tubes have same F A  (Kovalenko 1978; Wang & Sheeley 1991)

21. How is the corona heated? —A. van Ballegooijen Why is the fast (slow) solar wind fast (slow)? —S. Cranmer Solar Wind 11 / SOHO-16 Whistler, Canada, June 15, 2005 An Alfvén wave heating model Cranmer & van Ballegooijen (2005) built a model of the global properties of incompressible non-WKB Alfvenic turbulence along an open flux tube. Background plasma properties (density, flow speed, B-field strength) are fixed empirically; wave properties are modeled with virtually no “free” parameters. Lower boundary condition: observed horizontal motions of G-band bright points.

22. How is the corona heated? —A. van Ballegooijen Why is the fast (slow) solar wind fast (slow)? —S. Cranmer Solar Wind 11 / SOHO-16 Whistler, Canada, June 15, 2005 MHD turbulence It is highly likely that somewhere in the outer solar atmosphere the fluctuations become turbulent and cascade from large to small scales: With a strong background field, it is easier to mix field lines (perp. to B) than it is to bend them (parallel to B). Also, the energy transport along the field is far from isotropic: Z+Z+ Z–Z– Z–Z–

23. How is the corona heated? —A. van Ballegooijen Why is the fast (slow) solar wind fast (slow)? —S. Cranmer Solar Wind 11 / SOHO-16 Whistler, Canada, June 15, 2005 Results: polar hole vs. streamer edge Streamer wave amplitudes are smaller than holes: more damping occurs when waves “spend more time” in the corona (lower V ph ).

24. How is the corona heated? —A. van Ballegooijen Why is the fast (slow) solar wind fast (slow)? —S. Cranmer Solar Wind 11 / SOHO-16 Whistler, Canada, June 15, 2005 Results: polar hole vs. streamer edge Streamer wave amplitudes are smaller than holes: more damping occurs when waves “spend more time” in the corona (lower V ph ). More damping in the low corona leads to more heating... but the waves “run out of steam” higher up in the extended corona. (Q S > Q H below 1.4 R sun !)

25. How is the corona heated? —A. van Ballegooijen Why is the fast (slow) solar wind fast (slow)? —S. Cranmer Solar Wind 11 / SOHO-16 Whistler, Canada, June 15, 2005 Results: polar hole vs. streamer edge Streamer wave amplitudes are smaller than holes: more damping occurs when waves “spend more time” in the corona (lower V ph ). More damping in the low corona leads to more heating... but the waves “run out of steam” higher up in the extended corona. (Q S > Q H below 1.4 R sun !) 1-fluid temperatures are approximate, but there is general agreement with observations—and with above crit.pt. ideas.

26. How is the corona heated? —A. van Ballegooijen Why is the fast (slow) solar wind fast (slow)? —S. Cranmer Solar Wind 11 / SOHO-16 Whistler, Canada, June 15, 2005 Conclusions Preliminary: It does seem possible to understand the differences between fast and slow solar wind (at solar min!) from the flux-tube expansion... and its “natural” effects on r crit and Q(r).

27. How is the corona heated? —A. van Ballegooijen Why is the fast (slow) solar wind fast (slow)? —S. Cranmer Solar Wind 11 / SOHO-16 Whistler, Canada, June 15, 2005 Conclusions Preliminary: It does seem possible to understand the differences between fast and slow solar wind (at solar min!) from the flux-tube expansion... and its “natural” effects on r crit and Q(r). “Geometry is destiny?”

28. How is the corona heated? —A. van Ballegooijen Why is the fast (slow) solar wind fast (slow)? —S. Cranmer Solar Wind 11 / SOHO-16 Whistler, Canada, June 15, 2005 Conclusions Preliminary: It does seem possible to understand the differences between fast and slow solar wind (at solar min!) from the flux-tube expansion... and its “natural” effects on r crit and Q(r). For more information: http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/~scranmer/ Many of the insights embedded in this analysis wouldn’t have been possible without SOHO! (e.g., T ion >> T p > T e ). Upcoming missions (SDO, STEREO, Solar-B) will help build a more complete picture, but we really need next-generation UVCS and LASCO, as well as Solar Probe! “Geometry is destiny?”

29. See also Kohl et al. poster (Future Missions)

30. How is the corona heated? —A. van Ballegooijen Why is the fast (slow) solar wind fast (slow)? —S. Cranmer Solar Wind 11 / SOHO-16 Whistler, Canada, June 15, 2005 The need for extended heating: SOHO The basal “coronal heating problem” is well known: Above 2 R s, additional energy deposition is required in order to... » accelerate the fast solar wind (without artificially boosting mass loss and peak T e ), » produce the proton/electron temperatures seen in situ (also magnetic moment!), » produce the strong preferential heating and temperature anisotropy of heavy ions (in the wind’s acceleration region) seen with UV spectroscopy.

31. How is the corona heated? —A. van Ballegooijen Why is the fast (slow) solar wind fast (slow)? —S. Cranmer Solar Wind 11 / SOHO-16 Whistler, Canada, June 15, 2005 UVCS results: solar minimum (1996-1997 ) Ultraviolet spectroscopy probes properties of ions in the wind’s acceleration region. In June 1996, the first measurements of heavy ion (e.g., O +5 ) line emission in the extended corona revealed surprisingly wide line profiles... On-disk profiles: T = 1–3 million K Off-limb profiles: T > 200 million K !

32. How is the corona heated? —A. van Ballegooijen Why is the fast (slow) solar wind fast (slow)? —S. Cranmer Solar Wind 11 / SOHO-16 Whistler, Canada, June 15, 2005 Solar Wind: The Impact of UVCS UVCS/SOHO has led to new views of the acceleration regions of the solar wind. Key results include: The fast solar wind becomes supersonic much closer to the Sun (~2 R s ) than previously believed. In coronal holes, heavy ions (e.g., O +5 ) both flow faster and are heated hundreds of times more strongly than protons and electrons, and have anisotropic temperatures.

33. How is the corona heated? —A. van Ballegooijen Why is the fast (slow) solar wind fast (slow)? —S. Cranmer Solar Wind 11 / SOHO-16 Whistler, Canada, June 15, 2005 Ion cyclotron waves in the corona? UVCS observations have rekindled theoretical efforts to understand heating and acceleration of the plasma in the (collisionless?) acceleration region of the wind. Alfven wave’s oscillating E and B fields ion’s Larmor motion around radial B-field Ion cyclotron waves (10 to 10,000 Hz) suggested as a natural energy source that can be tapped to preferentially heat & accelerate heavy ions. Dissipation of these waves produces diffusion in velocity space along contours of ~constant energy in the frame moving with wave phase speed:

34. How is the corona heated? —A. van Ballegooijen Why is the fast (slow) solar wind fast (slow)? —S. Cranmer Solar Wind 11 / SOHO-16 Whistler, Canada, June 15, 2005 Anisotropic MHD cascade Can MHD turbulence generate ion cyclotron waves? Many models say no! Simulations & analytic models predict cascade from small to large k,leaving k ~unchanged. “Kinetic Alfven waves” with large k do not necessarily have high frequencies. In a low-beta plasma, KAWs are Landau-damped, heating electrons preferentially! Cranmer & van Ballegooijen (2003) modeled the anisotropic cascade with advection & diffusion in k-space and found some k “leakage”...

35. How is the corona heated? —A. van Ballegooijen Why is the fast (slow) solar wind fast (slow)? —S. Cranmer Solar Wind 11 / SOHO-16 Whistler, Canada, June 15, 2005 How are ions heated preferentially? Additional unanticipated frequency cascades (e.g., Gomberoff et al. 2004) Fermi-like random walks in velocity space when inward/outward waves coexist (heavy ions: Isenberg 2001; protons: Gary & Saito 2003) Impulsive plasma micro-instabilities that locally generate high-freq. waves (Markovskii 2004) Non-linear/non-adiabatic KAW-particle effects (Voitenko & Goossens 2004) Larmor “spinup” in dissipation-scale current sheets (Dmitruk et al. 2004) KAW damping leads to electron beams, further (Langmuir) turbulence, and Debye-scale electron phase space holes, which heat ions perpendicularly via “collisions” (Ergun et al. 1999; Cranmer & van Ballegooijen 2003) Collisionless velocity filtration of suprathermal tails (Pierrard et al. 2004) Variations on “Ion cyclotron resonance:” Other ideas:

36. How is the corona heated? —A. van Ballegooijen Why is the fast (slow) solar wind fast (slow)? —S. Cranmer Solar Wind 11 / SOHO-16 Whistler, Canada, June 15, 2005 Photospheric power spectrum The basal transverse fluctuation spectrum is specified from observed BP motions. The “ideal” data analysis of these motions:

37. How is the corona heated? —A. van Ballegooijen Why is the fast (slow) solar wind fast (slow)? —S. Cranmer Solar Wind 11 / SOHO-16 Whistler, Canada, June 15, 2005 Photospheric power spectrum In practice, there are two phases of observed BP motion: “random walks” of isolated BPs (e.g., Nisenson et al. 2003); “intermittent jumps” representing mergers, fragmenting, reconnection? (Berger et al. 1998). P K not necessarily equal to P B !

38. How is the corona heated? —A. van Ballegooijen Why is the fast (slow) solar wind fast (slow)? —S. Cranmer Solar Wind 11 / SOHO-16 Whistler, Canada, June 15, 2005 Non-WKB Alfvén wave reflection Above the 600 km merging height, we follow Eulerian perturbations along the axis of the superradial flux tube, with wind (Heinemann & Olbert 1980; Velli 1993):

39. How is the corona heated? —A. van Ballegooijen Why is the fast (slow) solar wind fast (slow)? —S. Cranmer Solar Wind 11 / SOHO-16 Whistler, Canada, June 15, 2005 Resulting wave amplitude (with damping) Transport equations solved for 300 “monochromatic” periods (3 sec to 3 days), then renormalized using photospheric power spectrum. One free parameter: base “jump amplitude” (0 to 5 km/s allowed; 3 km/s is best)

40. How is the corona heated? —A. van Ballegooijen Why is the fast (slow) solar wind fast (slow)? —S. Cranmer Solar Wind 11 / SOHO-16 Whistler, Canada, June 15, 2005 Turbulent heating rate Anisotropic heating and damping was applied to the model; L = 1100 km at the merging height; scales with transverse flux-tube dimension. The isotropic Kolmogorov law overestimates the heating in regions where Z – >> Z + Dmitruk et al. (2002) predicted that this anisotropic heating may account for much of the expected (i.e., empirically constrained) coronal heating in open magnetic regions... results

41. How is the corona heated? —A. van Ballegooijen Why is the fast (slow) solar wind fast (slow)? —S. Cranmer Solar Wind 11 / SOHO-16 Whistler, Canada, June 15, 2005 The Need for Better Observations Even though UVCS/SOHO has made significant advances, We still do not understand the physical processes that heat and accelerate the entire plasma (protons, electrons, heavy ions), There is still controversy about whether the fast solar wind occurs primarily in dense polar plumes or in low-density inter-plume plasma, We still do not know how and where the various components of the variable slow solar wind are produced (e.g., “blobs”). (Our understanding of ion cyclotron resonance is based essentially on just one ion!) UVCS has shown that answering these questions is possible, but cannot make the required observations. conc.

42. How is the corona heated? —A. van Ballegooijen Why is the fast (slow) solar wind fast (slow)? —S. Cranmer Solar Wind 11 / SOHO-16 Whistler, Canada, June 15, 2005 Future Diagnostics: more ions Observing emission lines of additional ions (i.e., more charge & mass combinations) in the acceleration region of the solar wind would constrain the specific kinds of waves and the specific collisionless damping modes. Cranmer (2002), astro-ph/0209301 conc.

43. How is the corona heated? —A. van Ballegooijen Why is the fast (slow) solar wind fast (slow)? —S. Cranmer Solar Wind 11 / SOHO-16 Whistler, Canada, June 15, 2005 Future Diagnostics: electron VDF Simulated H I Lyman alpha broadening from both H 0 motions (yellow) and electron Thomson scattering (green). Both proton and electron temperatures can be measured. conc.

44. How is the corona heated? —A. van Ballegooijen Why is the fast (slow) solar wind fast (slow)? —S. Cranmer Solar Wind 11 / SOHO-16 Whistler, Canada, June 15, 2005 Future Diagnostics: suprathermal tails Cranmer (1998, 2001) Measuring non-Maxwellian velocity distributions of electrons and positive ions would allow us to test specific models of, e.g., velocity filtration, cyclotron resonance, and MHD turbulence. conc.