1. Research Questions Generating effective research questions to shape literature reviews

2. Possible aims & objectives Description: what does it look like (what, when, where, who)? Explanation: why did it happen? Prediction: what is to be expected? Understanding: how is it grasped in human experience? Interpretation: what does it mean? Prescription: how ought it be? Change and emancipation: how can it be transformed for the better? Critique and disruption: what are the limitations and hidden assumptions? How can these assumptions be challenged/ interrupted? Etc. (e.g., exploration, demonstration, classification)

3. Unit of Analysis An individual exchange An episode A lesson A unit A student A classroom A school

4. Paradigms Process-Product Student Cognition/Mediation Classroom Ecology Teacher Cognition

5. Write a question for each paradigm Process-product, Student cognition/mediation, Classroom ecology, Teacher cognition Observation: some schools situated in poor urban areas significantly outperform others with similar demographics.

6. Writing Research Questions Is the question short, conceptually straightforward, and jargon free? Is the question grounded in temporal or spatial specifics? Is the question doable? Your expertise and resources need to be considered.

7. Ways to Refine a Question Population Setting Time frame Specific aspect of topic Outcome variable

8. Example Too broad: How does high stakes testing affect students? Refined: What is the correlation between high stakes test scores and levels of persistence in mastering challenging Mathematics tasks among inner-city eighth-grade students?

9. Operationalize Variables Poverty Motivation Intelligence Persistence Value of education Engagement Culture