1. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 1 9—Intelligence Nature of Intelligence Intelligence Testing Theories of Multiple Intelligence Intelligence in Infancy and Developmental TransformationsIntelligence in Infancy and Developmental Transformations The Extremes of Intelligence and Creativity The Influence of Heredity and Environment Summary

2. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 2 The Nature of Intelligence Intelligence –The ability to solve problems and to adapt to and learn from life’s everyday experiences.

3. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 3 Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 1 Describe what intelligence is –Review What is intelligence? How is intelligence linked to the concepts of individual differences and assessment? –Reflect What do you think makes a child intelligent?

4. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 4 Intelligence Testing Approaches to Testing –The Binet Tests Mental age (MA) –An individual’s level of mental development relative to others. Intelligent quotient (IQ) –Devised by William Stern in 1912, consists of an individual’s mental age divided by chronological age multiplied by 100.

5. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 5 Intelligence Testing –The Binet Tests Normal distribution—A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve with a majority of the cases falling in the middle of the possible range of scores and few scores appearing toward the extremes of the range.

6. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 6 Intelligence Testing The Normal Curve and Stanford-Benet IQ Scores Refer to Figure 9.1

7. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 7 Intelligence Testing –The Wechsler Scales The Wechsler scales not only provide an overall IQ score, but also yields scores on six verbal and five nonverbal measures. –Group Tests of Intelligence Though economical and convenient, group tests have some significant disadvantages.

8. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 8 Intelligence Testing Sample subscales of the Weschler Intelligence Scale for Children—Revised Refer to Figure 9.2

9. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 9 Intelligence Testing –Aptitude and Achievement Tests Aptitude tests –Tests that predict an individual’s ability to learn a skill or what the individual can accomplish with training. Achievement tests –Tests that measure what a person has learned or the skills that a person has mastered.

10. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 10 Intelligence Testing Criteria of a Good Intelligence Test –Validity The extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure. –Reliability The extent to which a test yields a consistent, reproducible measure of performance. –Standardization Involves developing uniform procedures for administrating and scoring a test, as well as creating norms for the test.

11. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 11 Intelligence Testing Test Construction and Evaluation Refer to Figure 9.3

12. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 12 Intelligence Testing Cultural Bias in Testing –Culture-fair tests Intelligence tests that are intended not to be culturally biased.

13. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 13 Intelligence Testing Sample Item from the Raven Progressive Matrices Test Refer to Figure 9.4

14. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 14 Intelligence Testing The Use and Misuse of Intelligence Tests –The effectiveness of psychological tests depends on the knowledge, skill, and integrity of the user.

15. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 15 Intelligence Testing Sample Item from the Raven Progressive Matrices Test Refer to Figure 9.4

16. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 16 Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 2 Explain how intelligence is measured and the limitations of intelligence tests –Review How can these aspects of intelligence testing be distinguished: early approaches, the Stanford-Binet tests, the Wechsler scales, and group tests? What are the criteria for a good test of intelligence? How can intelligence testing be culturally biased? What are some uses and misuses of intelligence tests?

17. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 17 Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 2 –Reflect A CD-ROM is being sold to parents for testing their child’s IQ and how the child is performing in relation to his or her grade in school. The company that makes the CD-ROM says that it helps to get parents involved in their child’s education. What might be some problems with parents giving their children an IQ test and interpreting the results?

18. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 18 Theories of Multiple Intelligence Factor Analysis, Two-Factor Theory, and Multiple-Factor Theory –Two-factor theory Spearman’s theory that individuals have both general intelligence (g) and a number of specific abilities. –Factor analysis A statistical procedure that examines various items or measures and identifies factors that are correlated with each other.

19. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 19 Theories of Multiple Intelligence Factor Analysis... (continued) –Multiple-factor theory Thurstone’s theory that intelligence consists of seven primary mental abilities; verbal comprehension, number ability, word fluency, spatial visualization, associative memory, reasoning, and perceptual speed.

20. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 20 Theories of Multiple Intelligence Gardner’s Theory of Eight Intelligences –From Verbal Intelligence to Naturalist Intelligence Verbal Skills Mathematical Skills Spatial Skills Bodily-Kinesthetic Skills Musical Skills Interpersonal Skills Intrapersonal Skills Naturalist Skills

21. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 21 Theories of Multiple Intelligence –Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom There is considerable interest in applying Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences to children’s education. Each day every student is exposed to materials that are designed to stimulate a whole range of human abilities.

22. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 22 Theories of Multiple Intelligence Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory –Sternberg’s theory that there are three main types of intelligence: analytical, creative, and practical. –Analytical, Creative, and Practical Intelligence Analytical Intelligencer Creative Intelligence Practical Intelligence

23. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 23 Theories of Multiple Intelligence Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory (continued) –Triarchic Intelligence in the Classroom Students should be given opportunities to learn through analytical, creative, and practical thinking, in addition to the conventional strategy of memorization.

24. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 24 Theories of Multiple Intelligence Emotional Intelligence –The ability to monitor one’s own and others’ emotions and feelings, to discriminate among them, and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and action.

25. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 25 Theories of Multiple Intelligence Evaluating the Multiple-Intelligences Approach –Multiple-intelligence theories have stimulated us to think more broadly about what makes up people’s intelligence and competence.

26. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 26 Theories of Multiple Intelligence Comparison of Gardner’s, Sternberg’s, and Salovey/Mayer/Goleman’s Views of Intelligence Refer to Figure 9.5

27. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 27 Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 3 Evaluate theories of multiple intelligence

28. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 28 Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 3 –Review What role did factor analysis play in the development of two-factor theory and multiple- factor theory? What is Gardner’s theory of eight intelligences? How would you describe Sternberg’s triarchic theory? What is emotional intelligence? Evaluate the multiple-intelligences approach. Discuss whether children have a general intelligence.

29. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 29 Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 3 –Reflect Apply Gardner’s and Sternberg’s multiple intelligences to yourself (or someone else you know well). Write a narrative description of yourself based on each of these theorists’ views.

30. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 30 Intelligence in Infancy and Developmental Transformations Infant Intelligence Tests –Arnold Gesell (1934) developed a measure that served as a clinical tool to help sort out potentially normal babies from abnormal ones. Developmental quotient (DQ) –Any overall developmental score that combines subscores in the motor, language, adaptive, and personal-social domains in the Gesell assessment of infants.

31. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 31 Intelligence in Infancy and Developmental Transformations Infant Intelligence Tests (continued) Bayley Scales of Infant Development –Widely used scales in assessing infant development with three main components: a Mental Scale, a Motor Scale, and a Behavior Rating Scale.

32. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 32 Intelligence in Infancy and Developmental Transformations Stability and Change in Intelligence –There is a strong relation between IQ scores obtained at the ages of 6, 8, and 9 and IQ scores obtained at the age of 10. –However, there can be considerable variability in an individual’s scores on IQ tests.

33. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 33 Intelligence in Infancy and Developmental Transformations Information-Processing Tasks as Predictors of Intelligence –More precise assessment of infant cognition with information-processing tasks involving attention has led to the conclusion that continuity between infant and childhood intelligence is greater than was previously believed (Bornstein & Krasnegor, 1989)

34. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 34 Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 4 Summarize the testing of intelligence in infancy and developmental transformations –Review What are infant intelligent tests like? To what extent does intelligence stay the same or change as children develop? Can information-processing tasks in infancy predict intelligence? Explain.

35. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 35 Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 4 –Reflect As a parent, would you want your infant’s intelligence tested? Why or why not?

36. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 36 The Extremes of Heredity and Environment Mental Retardation –A condition of limited mental ability in which the individual has a low IQ, usually below 70, has difficulty adapting to everyday life, and has an onset o\f these characteristics in the so- called developmental period. Metal retardation may have an organic cause, or it may be social and cultural in origin (Das, 2000).

37. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 37 The Extremes of Heredity and Environment Classification of Metal Retardation Based on IQ Refer to Figure 9.6

38. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 38 The Extremes of Heredity and Environment Classification of Mental Retardation Based on Levels of Support Needed Refer to Figure 9.7

39. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 39 The Extremes of Heredity and Environment Giftedness –Gifted Describes individuals who have a high IQ (130 or higher) and/or superior talent for something. Ellen Winner (1996) described three criteria that characterize gifted children: –Precocity. –Marching to their own drummer. –A passion to master.

40. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 40 The Extremes of Heredity and Environment Creativity –The ability to think about something in novel or unusual ways and come up with unique solutions to problems.

41. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 41 The Extremes of Heredity and Environment Creativity (continued) –Creatively and Intelligence Divergent thinking –Thinking that produces many answers to the same question; characteristic of creativity. Convergent thinking –Thinking that produces one correct answer; characteristic of the type of thinking required on traditional intelligence tests.

42. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 42 The Extremes of Heredity and Environment Creativity –Guiding Children’s Creativity Have children engage in brainstorming—a technique in which children are encouraged to come up with creative ideas in a group, play off each other’s ideas, and say practically whatever comes to mind—and come up with as many ideas as possible.

43. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 43 The Extremes of Heredity and Environment Creativity –Guiding Children’s Creativity Provide children with environments that stimulate creativity. Don’t overcontrol. Encourage internal motivation Foster flexible and playful thinking Introduce children to creative people

44. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 44 Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 5 Discuss characteristics of mental retardation, giftedness, and creativity –Review What is mental retardation? What causes mental retardation? What makes children gifted? What characteristics are associated with creativity?

45. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 45 Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 5 –Reflect If you were an elementary school teacher, what would you do to encourage students’ creativity?

46. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 46 The Influence of Heredity and Environment Hereditary Influences –Heritability The fraction of the variance in IQ in a population that is attributed to genetics Researchers have found that the heritability of intelligence increases from childhood to adulthood (McGue & others, 1993). Heritability refers to groups (populations), not to individuals (Okagaki, 2000).

47. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 47 The Influence of Heredity and Environment Correlation Between Intelligence Test Scores and Twin Status Refer to Figure 9.8

48. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 48 Explorations in Child Development Early Intervention and Retention in School Refer to Figure 9.9

49. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 49 Explorations in Child Development Environmental Influences –For most people, modifications in environment can change their IQ scores considerably.

50. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 50 Explorations in Child Development The Increase in IQ Scores from 1932 to 1997 Refer to Figure 9.10

51. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 51 Explorations in Child Development Group Comparisons –Cross-Cultural Comparisons Cultures vary in the way they define intelligence (Rogoff, 1990; Serpell, 2000).

52. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 52 Explorations in Child Development Group Comparisons –Ethnic Comparisons In the United States, children from African American and Latino families score below children from White families on standardized intelligence tests. As African Americans have gained social, economic, and educational opportunities, the gap between African Americans and Whites on standardized intelligence tests has begun to narrow (Ogbu & Stern, 2001)

53. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 53 Explorations in Child Development Group Comparisons –Gender Comparisons The average scores of males and females do not differ on intelligence tests, but variability in their scores does differ (Brody, 2000). There are gender differences in specific intellectual areas (Brody, 2000).

54. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 54 Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 6 Analyze the contributions of heredity and environment to intelligence –Review How does heredity influence intelligence? How can the environment influence intelligence? How are cultural, ethnic,. and gender differences linked with intelligence?

55. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 55 Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 6 –Reflect Someone tells you that he or she has analyzed his her genetic background and environmental experiences and reached the conclusion that environment definitively has had little influence on his or her intelligence. What would you say to this person about his or her ability to make this self- diagnosed conclusion?

56. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 56 Summary Intelligence consists of the ability to solve problems and to adapt and learn from everyday experiences. Sir Frances Galton is the father of mental tests. Alfred Binet developed the first intelligence test and created the concept of mental age. William Stern developed the concept of IQ for use with Binet test.

57. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 57 Summary A good test of intelligence meets three criteria: validity, reliability, and standardization. Early intelligence tests favored White, middle-socioeconomic-status urban individuals.

58. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 58 Summary When used by a judicious examiner, tests can be valuable tools for determining individual differences in intelligence. Factor analysis is a statistical procedure that compares various items or measures and identifies factors that are correlated with each other.

59. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 59 Summary Gardner believes there are eight types of intelligence: verbal, skills, mathematical skills, spatial skills, bodily-kinesthetic skills, musical skills, interpersonal skills, intrapersonal skills, and naturalist skills.

60. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 60 Summary Sternberg’s triarchic theory states that there are three main types of intelligence: analytical, creative, and practical. Emotional intelligence is the ability to monitor one’s own and others’ feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use the information to guide one’s thinking and action.

61. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 61 Summary The multiple-intelligences approaches have broadened the definition of intelligence and motivated educators to develop programs that instruct students in different domains. A number of experts on intelligence believe that children have a general intelligence as well as specific intellectual abilities.

62. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 62 Summary Intelligence tests designed to assess infant intelligence are often called developmental scales, the most widely-used being the Bayley scales. Many children’s scores on intelligence tests fluctuate considerably.

63. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 63 Summary Developmentalists have found that infant information-processing tasks that involve attention—especially habituation and dishabituation—are related to standardized intelligence test scores in childhood.

64. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 64 Summary Mental retardation is a condition of limited mental ability in which the individual has low IQ, usually below 70, has difficulty adapting to everyday life, and has an onset of these characteristics during the so-called developmental period.

65. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 65 Summary Children who are gifted have high intelligence (an IQ of 130 or higher) and/or superior talent for something. Creativity is the ability to think about something in novel and unusual ways and come up with unique solutions to problems.

66. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 66 Summary Genetic similarity might explain why identical twins show stronger correlations on intelligence tests than fraternal twins do.

67. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 67 Summary Environmental influences on intelligence have been demonstrated in studies of the effects of parenting, intervention programs for children at risk for having low IQs or dropping our of school, and sociohistorical changes.

68. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 68 Summary Among the ways that group influences can be linked with intelligence include comparisons of cultures, ethnic groups, and males and females.