Learning behavior, knowledge, capability, or attitude

Learning behavior, knowledge, capability, or attitude
A relatively permanent change in behavior, knowledge, capability, or attitude that is acquired through experience and cannot be attributed to illness, injury, or maturation

Classical Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov Terminology Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) Conditioned Stimulus (CS) Unconditioned Response (UCR) Conditioned Response (CR) Classical conditioning explains how a neutral stimulus can acquire the capacity to elicit (or draw forth) a response originally elicited by another stimulus. Ivan Pavlov, a prominent Russian physiologist in the early 1900s, who did Nobel prize winning research on digestion, discovered (partly by accident) that dogs will salivate in response to the sound of a tone. In doing so, he discovered classical, sometimes called Pavlovian, conditioning. In classical conditioning, the UCS is a stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response without previous conditioning: Pavlov’s meat powder. The UCR is an unlearned reaction to a UCS that occurs without previous conditioning: salivating. The CS is a previously neutral stimulus that has acquired the capacity to elicit a conditioned response: the sound of a tone. The CR is a learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus: salivating to the tone.

Figure 6.1 Classical conditioning apparatus
Classical conditioning apparatus. An experimental arrangement similar to the one depicted here (taken from Yerkes & Morgulis, 1909) has typically been used in demonstrations of classical conditioning, although Pavlov’s original setup (see inset) was quite a bit simpler. The dog is restrained in a harness. A tone is used as the conditioned stimulus (CS), and the presentation of meat powder is used as the unconditioned stimulus (UCS). The tube inserted into the dog’s salivary gland allows precise measurement of its salivation response. The pen and rotating drum of paper on the left are used to maintain a continuous record of salivary flow. (Inset) The less elaborate setup that Pavlov originally used to collect saliva on each trial is shown here (Goodwin, 1991). Figure 6.1 Classical conditioning apparatus

The Process of Classical Conditioning Discovered by accident during saliva experiment Observed salivary response occurring before presentation of food when dogs heard footsteps of lab assistants heard food dishes rattle saw the attendant who fed them Or spotted their food. =

A type of learning through which an organism learns to associate one stimulus with another. Stimulus Any event or object in the environment to which an organism responds.

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) A stimulus that elicits a specific unconditioned response without learning Food Loud noise Light in eye Puff of air in eye Unconditioned Response (UCR) A response that is elicited by an unconditioned stimulus without prior learning. Salivation Startle Contraction of pupil to light eye blink response

Conditioned Stimulus (CS) A neutral stimulus that, after repeated pairing with an UCS, becomes associated with it and elicits a CR Conditioned Response (CR) The learned response that comes to be elicited by a CS as a result of its repeated pairing with an UCS. Higher-Order Conditioning Occurs when the CS are linked together to form a series of signals The steps leading to a blood draw at a clinic

Figure 6.2 The sequence of events in classical conditioning
(a) Moving downward, this series of three panels outlines the sequence of events in classical conditioning, using Pavlov’s original demonstration as an example. (b) As we encounter other examples of classical conditioning throughout the book, we will see many diagrams like the one in this panel, which will provide snapshots of specific instances of classical conditioning. Figure 6.2 The sequence of events in classical conditioning

Basic Processes in Classical Conditioning
Acquisition Extinction Spontaneous recovery Stimulus generalization Stimulus discrimination Higher-order conditioning Acquisition refers to the initial stage of learning a response: acquiring the response. Extinction occurs when the CS and UCS are no longer paired and the response to the CS is weakened. We know that the response is still there, just not active, because of spontaneous recovery – when an extinguished response reappears after a period of non-pairing. Generalization occurs when conditioning generalizes to additional stimuli that are similar to the CS; for example, Watson and Rayner’s study with Little Albert, who was conditioned to fear a white rat but later came to be afraid of many white, furry objects. Discrimination is the opposite of generalization; that is, the response is to a specific stimulus. Similar stimuli don’t work. Higher order conditioning occurs when a CS functions as if it were a UCS to establish new conditioning.

Changing Conditioned Responses
Extinction The weakening and eventual disappearance of the CR as a result of repeated presentation of the CS with out the UCS. Spontaneous Recovery Reappearance of an extinguished response after exposure to the original CS following a rest period.

Figure 6.6 Acquisition, extinction, and spontaneous recovery
Classical conditioning and romance. Pleasant emotional responses can be acquired through classical conditioning, as illustrated by one woman’s unusual conditioned response to the aroma of Beemans gum and cigarette smoke. Figure 6.6 Acquisition, extinction, and spontaneous recovery

Changing Conditioned Responses
Generalization The tendency to make a CR to a stimulus that is similar to the original CS Discrimination The learned ability to distinguish between similar stimuli so that the CR occurs only to the original CS but not to similar stimuli

Figure 6.8 Higher-order conditioning
involves a twophase process. In the first phase, a neutral stimulus (such as a tone) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (such as meat powder) until it becomes a conditioned stimulus that elicits the response originally evoked by the UCS (such as salivation). In the second phase, another neutral stimulus (such as a red light) is paired with the previously established CS, so that it also acquires the capacity to elicit the response originally evoked by the UCS. Figure 6.8 Higher-order conditioning

John Watson and Emotional Conditioning
In 1919 initiated experiment to prove fear could be classically conditioned. ‘Little Albert’ Conditioned to be afraid of White rats Other white objects

Classical Conditioning in Daily Life
Dental visits Sound of the drills and suction Smell of the office Sight of the chair and light Drug use The CS associated with drug use lead individuals to seek out those substances Counselors urge recovering addicts to avoid any cues (people, places, and things) Copyright © Allyn &

The Cognitive Perspective
Robert Rescorla Demonstrated that classical conditioning is not repeated paring of the CS and the UCS Conditioning depends on whether the CS provides information that enables reliable prediction of the UCS. Used pairings of tones and shocks with rats Only the group where the tone reliably predicted the shock developed a conditioned fear response When the tone provided no clue about the shock pairings did not lead to conditioning.

Classical Conditioning in Daily Life
Taste Aversion The intense dislike and/or avoidance of a particular food that has been associated with nausea or discomfort. Chemotherapy Chemotherapy treatments can result in a conditioned taste aversion, Providing a “scapegoat” target can help patients maintain a proper diet

Operant Conditioning Thorndike’s Law of Effect
The consequences, or effect, of a response will determine whether the tendency to respond in the same way in the future will be strengthened or weakened. Responses closely followed by “satisfying consequences” are more likely to be repeated. Responses that have unpleasant consequences will be avoided. Puzzle Box a cat had to press a pedal or pull a loop in order to escape the box and receive food. Cat learned how to open the door almost immediately after many trials

Operant Conditioning B. F. Skinner
A type of learning in which the consequences of behavior are manipulated in order to increase or decrease the frequency of a response or to shape an entirely new response. Operant a voluntary behavior that accidentally brings about a consequence Reinforcer Anything that follows a response and strengthens it Or increases the probability that it will occur B. F. Skinner

Operant Conditioning Reinforcement—the occurrence of a stimulus following a response that increases the likelihood of the response being repeated

Figure 6.9 Reinforcement in operant conditioning
Reinforcement in operant conditioning. According to Skinner, reinforcement occurs when a response is followed by rewarding consequences and the organism’s tendency to make the response increases. The two examples diagrammed here illustrate the basic premise of operant conditioning—that voluntary behavior is controlled by its consequences. These examples involve positive reinforcement (for a comparison of positive and negative reinforcement, see Figure 6.14). Figure 6.9 Reinforcement in operant conditioning

Reinforcement Positive reinforcement Roughly the same as a reward
Any pleasant or desirable consequence that follows a response and increases the probability that the response will be repeated. Roughly the same as a reward You smile as you walk down the street People smile back at you and say nice things You want to smile at everyone

Reinforcement The series of behaviors involved in using an ATM
Any event that follows a response and strengthens or increases the probability that the response will be repeated. The series of behaviors involved in using an ATM Paying bills on time avoids steep late-payment fees

Reinforcement Negative Reinforcement
The termination of an unpleasant condition after a response which increases the probability that the response will be repeated. Turning on air conditioning to avoid the heat Getting out of bed to turn off a leaky faucet Heroin addicts will do almost anything to get another fix and avoid the pains of withdrawal

Figure 6.14 Positive reinforcement versus negative reinforcement
In positive reinforcement, a response leads to the presentation of a rewarding stimulus. In negative reinforcement, a response leads to the removal of an aversive stimulus. Both types of reinforcement involve favorable consequences and both have the same effect on behavior: The organism’s tendency to emit the reinforced response is strengthened. Figure Positive reinforcement versus negative reinforcement

Figure 6.15 Escape and avoidance learning
Escape and avoidance learning. (a) Escape and avoidance learning are often studied with a shuttle box like that shown here. Warning signals, shock, and the animal’s ability to flee from one compartment to another can be controlled by the experimenter. (b) Avoidance begins because classical conditioning creates a conditioned fear that is elicited by the warning signal (panel 1). Avoidance continues because it is maintained by operant conditioning (panel 2). Specifically, the avoidance response is strengthened through negative reinforcement, since it leads to removal of the conditioned fear. Figure Escape and avoidance learning

Reinforcement: Consequences that Strengthen Responses
Primary Reinforcers Satisfy biological needs Secondary Reinforcers Conditioned reinforcement Operant theorists distinguish between primary reinforcers, which are events that are inherently reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs, and secondary reinforcers, which are events that acquire reinforcing qualities by being associated with primary reinforcers. Primary reinforcers in humans include food, water, warmth, sex, and maybe affection expressed through hugging and close bodily contact. Secondary reinforcers in humans include things like money, good grades, attention, flattery, praise, and applause.

Reinforcement Primary Reinforcer Secondary Reinforcer
A reinforcer that fulfills a basic physical need for survival and does not depend on learning Food Water sleep Secondary Reinforcer Acquired or learned through association with other reinforcers Money Praise applause

Basic Processes in Operant Conditioning
Acquisition Shaping Extinction Stimulus Control Generalization Discrimination As in classical conditioning, acquisition refers to the initial stage of learning. Learning operant responses usually occurs through a gradual process called shaping, which consists of the reinforcement of closer and closer approximations of a desired response. This is the key in pet tricks. Extinction in operant conditioning refers to the gradual weakening and disappearance of a response tendency, because the response is no longer followed by a reinforcer. If we stop giving food when the rat presses the lever, this results in a brief surge of responding followed by a gradual decline until it approaches zero. Stimuli that precede a response can exert considerable influence over operant behavior, basically becoming “signals” that a reinforcer is coming. Discriminative stimuli are cues that influence operant behavior by indicating the probable consequences of a response (ex. slow down when the highway is wet, ask Mom when she’s in a good mood, etc.). Discrimination occurs when an organism responds to one stimulus, but not another one similar to it, while generalization occurs when a new stimulus is responded to as if it were the original. (Ex. cat runs to the sound of a can-opener which signals food, but not to the sound of the mixer: discrimination. Get a new blender, cat runs to it: generalization).

Variations in Operant Conditioning
Skinner Box A sound proof chamber with a device for delivering food to an animal subject Food pellets or water are delivered after correct response(s) Records are kept on a cumulative recorder

Figure 6.10 Skinner box and cumulative recorder
Skinner box and cumulative recorder. (a) This diagram highlights some of the key features of an operant chamber, or Skinner box. In this apparatus designed for rats, the response under study is lever pressing. Food pellets, which may serve as reinforcers, are delivered into the food cup on the right. The speaker and light permit manipulations of visual and auditory stimuli, and the electric grid gives the experimenter control over aversive consequences (shock) in the box. (b) A cumulative recorder connected to the box keeps a continuous record of responses and reinforcements. A small segment of a cumulative record is shown here. The entire process is automatic as the paper moves with the passage of time; each lever press moves the pen up a step, and each reinforcement is marked with a slash. (c) This photo shows the real thing—a rat being conditioned in a Skinner box. Note the food dispenser on the left, which was omitted from the diagram. Figure Skinner box and cumulative recorder

Successive Approximations A series of gradual steps, each of which is more similar to the final desired response. Reward disruptive children by reinforcing them at first for very short periods of good behavior and then gradually expecting them to work productively for longer periods. Extinction The weakening and eventual disappearance of the conditioned response as a result of the withholding of reinforcement Shaking a vending machine that fails to deliver soda or candy before giving up and walking away

Generalization The tendency to make the learned response to a stimulus similar to that for which the response was originally reinforced A pigeon trained to peck a yellow disk will peck similar colored disks The less similar the color the lower the rate of pecking will be Discriminative stimulus A stimulus that signals whether a certain response or behavior is likely to be rewarded, ignored, or punished. WWB

Punishment Presentation of a stimulus following a behavior that acts to decrease the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated

Problems with Punishment
Does not teach or promote alternative, acceptable behavior May produce undesirable results such as hostility, passivity, fear Likely to be temporary May model aggression

Making Punishment More Effective
Punishment should be of the minimum severity necessary to suppress the problem behavior Unnecessarily severe punishment leads to adverse side effects Purpose of punishment is NOT to vent anger but to modify behavior. Punishment meted out in anger is usually more intense than necessary to bring about desired result. If too mild it will have no effect Gradually increasing the intensity of the punishment causes the perpetrator to adapt and the unwanted behavior will persist. To suppress a behavior the punishment must be more punishing than the misbehavior is rewarding A $200 ticket is more likely to suppress speeding than a $2 ticket.

Making Punishment Effective
It must be applied consistently Parents can not ignore misbehavior one day and punish the same act the next day. Both parents should react to the same misbehavior in the same way. An undesired response will be suppressed more effectively when the probability of punishment is high. Most people will not speed when a police car is in the rear-view mirror. It must be Immediate - Swiftly follow the behavior

Figure 6.16 Comparison of negative reinforcement and punishment
punishment. Although punishment can occur when a response leads to the removal of a rewarding stimulus, it more typically involves the presentation of an aversive stimulus. Students often confuse punishment with negative reinforcement because they associate both with aversive stimuli. However, as this diagram shows, punishment and negative reinforcement represent opposite procedures that have opposite effects on behavior. Figure Comparison of negative reinforcement and punishment

Cognitive Aspects of Operant Conditioning
Cognitive map—term for a mental representation of the layout of a familiar environment Latent learning—learning that occurs in the absence of reinforcement, but is not demonstrated until a reinforcer is available Learned helplessness—phenomenon where exposure to inescapable and uncontrollable aversive events produces passive behavior

Learned Helplessness Dogs in a harness received electric shock
A passive resignation to aversive conditions that is learned through repeated exposure to inescapable and unavoidable aversive events. – Giving Up Overmeier and Seligman Experiment Dogs in a harness received electric shock Later, same dogs placed in a box with two compartments separated by a low barrier Warning signal indicated shock was coming in floor on one side Dogs did not jump the barrier to avoid the shock Dogs in control group jumped the barrier . WWB

Figure 6.19 Latent learning
Latent learning. (a) In the study by Tolman and Honzik (1930), rats learned to run the complicated maze shown here. (b) The results obtained by Tolman and Honzik (1930) are summarized in this graph. The rats in Group C showed a sudden improvement in performance when a food reward was introduced on Trial 11. Tolman concluded that the rats in this group were learning about the maze all along, but their learning remained “latent” until reinforcement was made available. Figure Latent learning

Applications of Operant Conditioning
Behavior Modification A method of changing behavior through a systematic program based on the learning principles of classical conditioning, operant conditioning, or observational learning. Autistic children and adults stopped self-injurious behaviors Token Economy A program that motivates socially desirable behavior by reinforcing it with tokens that can be exchanged for desired items or privileges. Poker chips or coupons are given when a patient grooms correctly, does chores, or interacts socially appropriate Positive behavior may stop when tokens are not given Time Out a misbehaving child is removed for a short time from sources of positive reinforcement in an attempt to extinguish the unwarranted behavior.

Table 6.1 Comparison of Basic Processes in Classical and Operant Conditioning

Schedules of Reinforcement
Continuous reinforcement Intermittent (partial) reinforcement Ratio schedules Fixed Variable Interval schedules A schedule of reinforcement determines which occurrences of a specific response result in the presentation of a reinforcer. Continuous reinforcement occurs when every instance of a designated response is reinforced (faster acquisition, faster extinction). Intermittent reinforcement occurs when a designated response is reinforced only some of the time (greater resistance to extinction). Ratio schedules require the organism to make the designated response a certain number of times to gain each reinforcer. A fixed-ratio schedule entails giving a reinforcer after a fixed number of non-reinforced responses. A variable ratio schedule entails giving a reinforcer after a variable number of non-reinforced responses. Interval schedules require a time period to pass between the presentation of reinforcers. A fixed-interval schedule entails reinforcing the first response that occurs after a fixed time interval has elapsed. A variable-interval schedule entails giving the reinforcer for the first response after a variable time interval has elapsed. More than 40 years of research on these schedules has yielded an enormous amount of information about how organisms respond to different schedules.

Figure 6.13 Schedules of reinforcement and patterns of response
Schedules of reinforcement and patterns of response. In graphs of operant responding such as these, a steeper slope indicates a faster rate of response and the slash marks reflect the delivery of reinforcers. Each type of reinforcement schedule tends to generate a characteristic pattern of responding. In general, ratio schedules tend to produce more rapid responding than interval schedules (note the steep slopes of the FR and VR curves). In comparison to fixed schedules, variable schedules tend to yield steadier responding (note the smoother lines for the VR and VI schedules on the right). Figure Schedules of reinforcement and patterns of response

Changing Directions in the Study of Conditioning
Biological Constraints on Conditioning Instinctive Drift Conditioned Taste Aversion Arbitrary vs. ecological conditioned stimuli Cognitive Influences on Conditioning Latent learning Signal relations Response-outcome relations New research has greatly changed the way we think about conditioning, with both biological and cognitive influences having been discovered. Instinctive drift occurs when an animal’s innate response tendencies interfere with conditioning (the raccoon who would rather rub the coins together than obtain the reinforcer). Conditioned taste aversions can be readily acquired, after only one trial and when the stimuli are not contiguous (i.e., becoming ill occurs hours after eating a food), suggesting that there is a biological mechanism at work. While research has traditionally focused on conditioning with arbitrary stimuli, Michael Domjan points out that conditioning in natural settings does not typically involve arbitrary stimuli, but stimuli that have a natural relationship to the unconditioned stimuli they predict. Edward C. Tolman showed that rats learned a maze even in the absence of reinforcement (what he called latent learning), challenging the assumption that learning was dependent on reinforcement, and argued that the rats had formed a cognitive map of the maze. Signal relations theory (Rescorla) illustrates that the predictive value of a CS is an influential factor governing classical conditioning. Response-outcome relations - when a response is followed by a desired outcome, it is more easily strengthened if it seems that it caused the outcome (predicts). You study for an exam and listen to Smashmouth, you make an A. What is strengthened, studying or listening to Smashmouth? Signal relations and response-outcome research suggest that cognitive processes play a larger role in conditioning than once believed.

Observational Learning
Albert Bandura Observational learning Basic processes attention retention reproduction motivation Albert Bandura outlined the theory of observational learning. In observational learning, vicarious conditioning occurs by an organism watching another organism (a model) be conditioned. Observational learning can occur for both classical and operant conditioning. In order for observational learning to take place, four key processes are at work. First the organism must pay attention to the model, retain the information observed, and be able to reproduce the behavior. Finally, an observed response is unlikely to be reproduced unless the organism is motivated to do so, i.e., they believe there will be a pay off.

Figure 6.20 Observational learning
In observational learning, an observer attends to and stores a mental representation of a model’s behavior (example: assertive bargaining) and its consequences (example: a good buy on a car). If the observer sees the modeled response lead to a favorable outcome, the observer’s tendency to emit the modeled response will be strengthened. Figure Observational learning

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