1. CSCI 2670 Introduction to Theory of Computing September 16, 2004

2. Agenda Yesterday –Prove the pumping lemma –Introduce context-free grammars Today –Quiz –Formally define CFG’s –Build CFG’s

3. Announcement The solution to 1.16a on the website is incorrect. I will fix it today.

4. Example S  (S) | SS | () (()())(()) S  SS  (S)(S)  (SS)(())  (()())(()) This sequence of substitutions is called a derivation

5. Parse tree S  (S) | SS | () S SS SS () S )( S ()

6. Context-free grammar definition A context-free grammar is a 4-tuple (V, ,R,S), where 1.V is a finite set called the variables, 2.  is a finite set, disjoint from V, called the terminals, 3.R is a finite set of rules, with each rule being a variable and a string of variables and terminals, and 4.S  V is the start variable.

7. More definitions If u, v, and w are strings of variables and terminals, and A  w is a rule of the grammar, we say uAv yields uwv –Denoted uAv  uwv

8. More definitions If a sequence of rules leads from u to v – i.e., u  u 1  u 2  …  v, we denote this u  * v (I can’t do the actual notation in powerpoint – the * should be over the double bars) The language of the grammar is {w   * | s  * w}

9. Example A  Ab | Bb B  aBb | ab V = {A,B}  = {a,b} R is the set of rules listed above S = A The language of this grammar is {w  {a,b} * | w = a n b m, m > n > 0}

10. Designing CFG’s Requires creativity Write a CFG to accept the language {0 n 1 n | n = 0, 1, 2, …} Write a CFG for operators +, -, and () over the symbols x, y, and z

11. Construction 1 {w = 0 n 1 n | n = 0, 1, 2, … } S  0S1 | ε

12. Construction 2 CFG for operators +, -, and () over the symbols x, y, and z S  S + S | S – S | (S) | x | y | z

13. Designing the union of two CFG’s Design each CFG separately with starting variables S 1, S 2, …, S k and combine using the rule S  S 1 | S 2 | … | S k What is the CFG for the following language { w|w = a n b m, m > n > 0}  {w|w = b n a m, m > n > 0}

14. Example First design {a n b m, m > n > 0} S 1  S 1 b | Ab A  aAb | ab Then design {b n a m, m > n > 0} –(use different variables) S 2  S 2 a | Ba B  bBa | ba Finally, add the “unifying” rule S  S 1 | S 2

15. Converting DFA’s into CFG’s For each state q i in the DFA, make a variable R i for your CFG. For each transition rule  (q i,a)=q k in your DFA, add the rule R i  aR k to your CFG For each accept state q a in your DFA, add the rule R a  ε If q 0 is the start state in your DFA, then R 0 is the starting variable in your CFG

16. Linked terminals Terminals may be “linked” to one another in that they have the same number of occurrences (or a related number) –{0 n 1 n }, {a n b m |m>n>0}, {x n y 2n } Add terminals simultaneously –S  0S1 | ε –S  xSyy | ε

17. Recursive behavior Some languages may be built of pieces that are within the language –(()())(()) For these languages, you will want a recursive rule –S  SS Not all recursive rules will be that easy!

18. Example Construct a CFG accepting all strings in {0,1} * that have equal numbers of 0’s and 1’s S  S0S1S | S1S0S | ε

19. Ambiguity Consider the CFG ({S},{0,1},R,S), where the rules of R are S  0 | 1 | S + S | S * S Derive the string 0 * 1 + 1

20. Ambiguity S  0 | 1 | S + S | S * S 0 * 1 + 1 S SS* S+S 0 11 S SS+ S*S 1 01 Different parse trees!

21. Next week Chomsky normal form for CFG’s Pushdown automata Non-context-free languages –Pumping lemma for CFG’s