1. Introduction to Memory Stages of Memory Information Processing model Working memory/Short term

2. Memory Memory is the basis of knowing your friends, your neighbors, the English language, the national anthem, and yourself. Memory is any indication that learning has persisted over time. It is our ability to store and retrieve information. If there was no memory every one would be a stranger to you, every language foreign, every task new, and even you yourself would be a stranger.

3. How does Memory fit in with what we have already studied? Nurture—how can you learn from experiences without being able to remember?? Encoding memories in the brain (Hippocampus-explicit, Cerebellum-implicit) Sensory stimuli transduced and compared to what you already know Classical conditioning and extinction Thinking and heuristics (problem solving)

4. Stages of Memory Keyboard (Encoding) Disk (Storage) Monitor (Retrieval) Sequential Process

5. Information Processing Model Atkinson-Schiffrin (1968) three-stage model of memory includes a) sensory memory, b) short-term memory and c) long-term memory. Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works Frank Wartenberg/ Picture Press/ Corbis

6. Problems with the Model 1.Some information skips the first two stages and enters long-term memory automatically. 2.The model is linear and doesn’t account for all memory stores (some people whose memories do not seem to decay may have more memory stores than others) 3.Some rare cases people have damage to STM and LTM is not affected (how possible?) 4.The nature of short-term memory is more complex---gives rise to “working memory” model by Baddeley

7. Working Memory Alan Baddeley (2002) proposes working memory to contain auditory and visual processing areas controlled by central executive through an episodic buffer.

8. AP info… What is the difference between the “information processing model” (Atkinson- Schiffrin) and the “working memory” (Baddeley)? Role of schemas and attention

9. Encoding: Getting Info. in  Types of processing  Memory effects  Ways we encode  Mnemonic devices

10. Encoding: Getting Information In How We Encode 1.Some information (route to your school) is automatically processed. 2.However novel information (friend’s new cell- phone number) requires attention and effort.

11. Automatic Processing Enormous amount of information is processed effortlessly (parallel processing) by us, like: 1.Space: While reading a textbook you automatically encode place of a picture on a page. 2.Time: We unintentionally note the events that take place in a day. 3.Frequency: You effortlessly keep track of things that happened to you.

12. Effortful Processing Novel information committed to memory requires effort, like learning a concept from a text. Such processing leads to durable and accessible memories. Leads to LONG TERM POTENTIATION (LTP)

13. Rehearsal Effortful learning usually requires rehearsal or conscious repetition. Ebbinghaus studied rehearsal by using nonsense syllables: TUV YOF GEK XOZ He also came up with the “forgetting curve” Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909) http://www.isbn3-540-21358-9.de

14. Rehearsal The more times the nonsense syllables were practiced on Day 1, the fewer repetitions were required to relearn them on Day 2.

15. Memory Effects 1.Next-in-line-Effect: that a person in a group has diminished recall for the words of others who spoke immediately before or after this person, because we are concentrating on what we are going to say 2.Spacing Effect: We retain information better when our rehearsal is distributed over time. 3.Serial Position Effect: When your recall is better for first and last items, but poor for middle items on a list.

16. Spacing Effect Distributed rehearsal (spacing effect) is better than massed practice. DON’T CRAM FOR TESTS …

17. Serial Position Effect 1.TUV 2.ZOF 3.GEK 4.WAV 5.XOZ 6.TIK 7.FUT 8.WIB 9.SAR 10.POZ 11.REY 12.GIJ Better recall Poor recall

18. Ways We Encode 1.Encoding by meaning 2.Encoding by images (mnemonics) 3.Encoding by organization Read the directions on your page to yourself No peeking

19. Encoding “Meaning” --Semantic encoding is a specific type of encoding in which the meaning of something (a word, phrase, picture, event, whatever) is encoded as opposed to the sound or vision of it. --We have better recall for things that we semantically encode and make meaningful to ourselves (“self-reference effect”)

20. Results So, how did you do on the recall of the 20 phrases?

21. Encoding Imagery Visual images easily encode Especially extremely positive or negative images Do you remember why???

22. Mnemonics Imagery is at the heart of many memory aids. Mnemonic techniques that use vivid imagery in aiding memory. 1.Method of Loci 2.Link Method

23. 1. Method of Loci (Location method) --this method involves matching items to be memorized with a well known location --Essentially, you would imagine yourself walking through a very familiar area (the road to the store, the various rooms of your house, etc) and place the items to be remembered in each location --The strength of this method is that our brains are better organized to store locations than random facts

24. 1. Method of Loci (Location method) Using the method of loci, remember these words Cap Rubber band Mouse Soap Fan Flag Towel

25. 2. Link Method Involves forming a mental image of items to be remembered in a way that links them together. 6 Red Apples Large Loaf of Bread Carton of Milk Bar of Foamy Soap Pair of Yellow Socks Packet of Chocolate Biscuits

26. 1st Link: Apples smashed on a shopping cart/trolley 2nd Link: Apples raining down on a large loaf of bread

27. 3rd Link: Giant milk carton kicking a loaf of bread 4th Link: Milk pouring out of a carton turns into white foamy soap!

28. 5th Link: Soap Man puts on his fuzzy yellow socks 6th Link: I'm putting chocolate biscuits in my socks

29. Complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories. Organizing Information for Encoding 1.Chunking 2.Hierarchy

30. Chunking Organizing items into familiar, manageable unit. Try to remember the number below. 1-7-7-6-1-4-9-2-1-8-1-2-1-9-4-1 If you are well versed with American history, chunk the number and see if you can recall it easier. 1776 1492 1812 1941.

31. Chunking Acronyms are another way to chunk information and remember it. HOMES = Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior PEMDAS = Parentheses, Exponent, Multiply, Divide, Add, Subtract ROY G. BIV = Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet

32. Hierarchy Complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories.

33. Encoding Summarized in a Hierarchy

35. AP info… What types of mnemonic devices work for you? Effortful vs automatic processing Who remembered more???

36. Storage: Retaining Information Sensory memory Echoic Iconic Haptic Working Memory (Short Term) Long term memory LTP Retrospective Memory Explicit memories Implicit memories Prospective Memory Amnesia

37. Take out a piece of paper and name as many presidents as you can

38. Storage: Retaining Information At the heart of memory is storage. Three stores of memory are shown below: Sensory Memory Working Memory Long-term Memory Encoding RetrievalEncoding Events Retrieval

39. Sensory Memory Sensory Memory Working Memory Long-term Memory Encoding RetrievalEncoding Events Retrieval

40. Types of Sensory Memory Echoic memories are memory of brief auditory stimuli Iconic memories are memory of brief visual stimuli Haptic memories are memory for tactile sense of touch Typically, echoic memories are stored for slightly longer periods of time than iconic memories (visual memories) All are sensory memories, not types of long-term memory, and thus are very temporary and fade quickly

41. Sensory Memories Iconic 0.5 sec. long Echoic 3-4 sec. long Haptic < 1 sec. long Duration of sensory memory differs for different senses.

42. Working Memory Sensory Memory Working Memory Long-term Memory Encoding RetrievalEncoding Events Retrieval

43. Listen to these numbers When I say “recall”, write them down on your paper

44. Working Memory Working memory, a new name for short-term memory, has limited capacity (7±2) and short duration (20 seconds). M U T G I K T L R S Y P You should be able to recall 7±2 letters. M U T G I K T L R S Y P

45. Chunking F-B-I-T-W-A-C-I-A-I-B-M Capacity of working memory may be increased by “Chunking.” FBI TWA CIA IBM 4 chunks

46. Working Memory Duration

47. Long-Term Memory Sensory Memory Working Memory Long-term Memory Encoding RetrievalEncoding Events Retrieval

48. Long-Term Memory Unlimited capacity store. Estimates on capacity are similar to 2.5 petabytes (million gigabytes). If your brain worked like a digital recorder, you could hold 3 million hours of TV shows The Clark’s nutcracker can locate 6,000 caches of buried pine seeds during winter and spring. R.J. Erwin/ Photo Researchers

49. Memory Feats

50. Synaptic Changes Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) refers to synaptic enhancement after learning (lynch, 2002). Increase in neurotransmitter release or receptors on the receiving neuron indicates strengthening of synapses. They learn to fire the action potential more efficiently (potentiation)

51. Stress Hormones & Memory Heightened emotions (stress related or otherwise) make for stronger memories. Continued stress can disrupt memory. Cortisol is the stress hormone. Scott Barbour/ Getty Images

52. Flashbulb Memory An unique and highly emotional moment can give rise to clear, strong, and persistent memory called flashbulb memory. Though this memory is not free from errors. Where were you when this happened?

53. Storing Retrospective Memories Explicit Memory refers to facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare. Implicit memory involves learning an action, and the individual does not know or declare what she knows.

54. Explicit Memory Refers to memories that you can explain how you know them, or declare. Facts, experiences, life events. They are processed in the hippocampus

55. Implicit Memory These memories are procedural and allow you to do something or carry out some task. They are processed using the cerebellum (they involvement movement and coordination)

56. Prospective memory The ability to remember to do something in the future –For example; remembering to take medicine at night before going to bed, At least half of everyday forgetting is due to prospective memory failures “Remembering to remember”, often triggered by a cue. Pass a mailbox and remember you need to mail something

57. Two types of Amnesia However, if the damage occurred somewhere in the cerebral cortex, he may not be able to access old memories which were formed before the accident due to retrograde amnesia After losing his hippocampus in surgery, a man remembers everything before the operation but cannot make new memories. We call this anterograde amnesia

58. AP info… Role of cortisol in memory formation –Mood-congruent memories Episodic vs procedural memory Eidetic memory…Dr. Reid (photographic) Superior Autobiographical Memory Types of sensory memory (iconic, echoic, haptic) Role of the hippocampus and the cerebellum Explicit memories you can explain, Implicit memories need to be primed

59. Retrieval: Getting Info Out  Measures of Memory  Recognition  Recall  Relearning  Cues  Context  “Stroop” Effect  Mood

60. Measures of Memory In recognition the person has to identify an item amongst others e.g., a multiple-choice test requires recognition. 1.Name the capital of France a.Brussels b.Rome c.London d.Paris

61. Measures of Memory In recall the person must retrieve information using effort, e.g., a fill-in-the blank test requires recall. 1.The capital of France is ______.

62. Measures of Memory In relearning the individual shows how much time (or effort) is saved when learning material a second time. List Jet Dagger Tree Kite … Silk Frog Ring It took 10 trials to learn this list List Jet Dagger Tree Kite … Silk Frog Ring It took 5 trials to learn the list 1 day later Saving Original Trials Relearning Trials Relearning Trials 10 5 50% X 100

63. Retrieval Cues Memories are held in storage by a web of associations. These associations are like anchors that help retrieve memory. Fire Truck truck red fire heat smoke smell water hose Try these remote associations…

64. Priming To retrieve a specific memory from the web of associations, you first need to activate one of the strands that lead to it, a process called priming.

65. Context Effects Scuba divers recalled more words underwater if they learned the list underwater, and recalled more words on land if they learned the list on land (Godden & Baddeley, 1975). Fred McConnaughey/ Photo Researchers

66. Read the words below as fast as you can.

67. Name the COLOR in which the words below are PRINTED as fast as you can.

68. The Stroop Effect When we look at a word, we automatically recall information about that word's meaning. When asked to name the colors of the print in which the words appeared, the meanings of those words interfered with our task, and you found yourself having difficulty completing the task. This is a good example of the capacity of your “working memory”. Similar to when you used your fingers to count the number of words in the sentence

69. Déja Vu Déja Vu means “"I've experienced this before.” Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience. © The New Yorker Collection, 1990. Leo Cullum from cartoonbank.com. All Rights Reserved

70. Moods and Memories Tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood. Emotions, or moods serve as retrieval cues. “Mood congruent memories” Jorgen Schytte/ Still Pictures

71. AP info… Recall vs recognition vs relearning Priming (James) – perception unit Stroop Effect – perception unit Context effects Mood congruent memories

72. Forgetting  Forgetting  Failure  Storage Decay  Interference  Motivated  False Memories  Misinformation Effect  Memory Construction  Source Amnesia

73. Forgetting Inability to retrieve information, due to poor: -encoding -storage or -retrieval.

74. Encoding Failure We cannot remember what we did not encode.

75. Which penny is real?

76. Retrieval Failure Although the information is retained in the memory store it cannot be accessed. Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) is a retrieval failure phenomenon. Given a cue (What makes the blood cells red?) the subject says the word begins with an H (hemoglobin). Priming can help overcome this…

77. Storage Decay Poor durability of stored memories leads to their decay. Ebbinghaus showed this with his forgetting curve.

78. Interference Learning some info. may disrupt retrieval of other info. Proactive (can’t get the new info.) and Retroactive (can’t get the old info.)

79. Retroactive Interference Sleeping helps avoid retroactive interference thus leading to better recall.

80. Motivated Forgetting Motivated Forgetting: People unknowingly revise their memories. Repression: Defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness. Freud believed this was at the heart of all defense mechanisms Sigmund Freud Culver Pictures

81. Why do we forget? Forgetting can occur at any memory stage; we filter, alter, or lose much information during these stages.

82. While tapping our memories, we filter or fill in missing pieces of information to make our recall more coherent. Misinformation Effect: Incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event. Leads to memory construction False Memory Syndrome A condition in which a person’s identity and relationships center around a false but strongly believed memory of traumatic experience sometimes induced by well-meaning therapists. False Memories

83. Eyewitnesses reconstruct memories when questioned about the event. Misinformation and Imagination Effects Depiction of the actual accident.

84. Group A: How fast were the cars going when they hit each other? 84

85. Group B: How fast were the cars speeding when they smashed into each other? 85

86. Memory Construction A week later they were asked; Was there any broken glass? Group B (smashed into) reported more broken glass than Group A (hit).

87. Constructed Memories Loftus’ research in eyewitness testimony has shown that if false memories are implanted in individuals, they construct (fabricate) their memories. Your brain will create a story to fill in the gaps. Don Shrubshell

88. Source Amnesia Source Amnesia: Attributing an event to the wrong source we have experienced, heard, read, or imagined (misattribution).

89. Accuracy of Memories

90. Improving Memory 1.Study repeatedly to boost recall long-term recall. 2.Spend more time rehearsing or actively thinking about the material. 3.Make material personally meaningful. 4.Use mnemonic devices:  associate with peg words — something already stored  make up story  chunk — acronyms

91. Improving Memory 5.Activate retrieval cues — mentally recreate situation and mood. 6.Recall events while they are fresh — before you encounter misinformation. 7.Minimize interference: 1.Test your own knowledge 2.Rehearse and determine what you do not yet know © LWA-Dann Tardiff/ Corbis

92. AP info… “retro”-we can’t get to the old stuff (both interference and amnesia) Serial position effect Tip of the tongue phenomenon Ebbinghaus’ forgetting curve Motivated forgetting—Freud Loftus and eyewitness –Influence of framing