16. Unit 2: Research Methods

17.  Tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.  “I knew it all along”  “Hindsight is 20/20”

18.  Think we know more than we do!  Together with hindsight bias, can lead to overestimate our intuition

19.  Three main components  Curious eagerness  Skeptically scrutinize competing ideas  Open-minded humility before nature

20.  Critical Thinking: Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments & conclusions. Critical Thinking  “Smart thinking”  Four elements:  Examines assumptions  Discerns hidden values  Evaluates evidence  Assesses conclusions

21. 1. A Ping-Pong Ball in a Hole –  Your ping-pong ball fell into a narrow metal pipe imbedded in concrete one foot deep.  How can you get it out undamaged, if all the tools you have are your tennis paddle, your shoe-laces, and an unopened bottle of water?

22. 2. Round vs. Square –  Why is it better for manhole covers to be round rather than square?

23. 3. Goat, Boat, Cabbage and a Wolf-  A farmer returns from the market, where he bought a goat, a cabbage and a wolf.  On the way home he must cross a river. His boat is small and won’t fit more than ONE of his purchases.  He cannot leave the goat alone with the cabbage (because the goat would eat it), nor can he leave the goat alone with the wolf (because the wolf would eat it).  How can the farmer get everything on the other side?

24.  All you have to do is pour some water into the pipe so that the ball swims up on the surface. None of those random things are going to help you, but the whole point is the person thinks they have to use the tools.

25.  Take the she-goat to the other side. Go back, take cabbage, unload it on the other side where you load the she-goat, go back and unload it. Take the wolf to the other side where you unload it. Go back for the she-goat. That's it.

26.  You can turn a square manhole cover sideways and drop it down the diagonal of the manhole. You cannot drop a round manhole cover down the manhole. Therefore, round manhole covers are safer and more practical than square ones.

27. Unit 2: Research Methods

28.  Theory = A mere “hunch”  Scientific theory = Observations  Scientific theory = explains through an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.

29.  Evaluates competing ideas with careful observations & rigorous analysis to describe and explain human nature.  Observations  Problem  Hypothesis  Experiment  Data  Conclusion  Replication

30.  Information about the problem.

31.  Question based upon observations.

32.  A statement of relationship between or among variable.  A suggested solution to the problem.  If…Then…

33. A procedure to test the hypothesis.  Control – experiment without the variable  Variable – factor being tested

34. Results of the experiment.

35. The answer to the hypothesis.

36.  In order to verify the results, experiments must be retested.  Operational definitions

37.  A good theory is useful if it:  Effectively organizes a range of self-reports and observations  Implies clear predictions that anyone can use to check the theory

41. 1) Identify a Problem 2) State Observations about the problem 3) Form a Hypothesis about the problem (if…then…) 4) Design an Experiment to test the hypothesis 5) Collect Data 6) Form a Conclusion 7) Replicate

42.  Observations  Problem  Hypothesis  Correlational study?  Positive or Negative?  Specific Experiment  All steps included  Operational definitions  Data Collected  Conclusion  Replicate  What is your population?  How did you find sample?  Control Group  Experimental Group  Independent Variable  Dependent Variable  Confounding Variables  Blind/Double Blind?  Placebo  Any Bias?

44.  Gathering of information by simply watching subjects  Can lead to bias

45.  A factor unfairly increases a researcher reaching a particular conclusion

46.  Notice evidence which supports one point of view or hypothesis.  Objectivity tends to reduce bias.

47.  Subjects respond in ways they believe the researcher wants them to behave  Know they are being observed  Naturalistic Observation

48.  Observing & recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.  Unaware they are being watched

49.  Observations  Problem  Hypothesis  Correlational study?  Positive or Negative?  Specific Experiment  All steps included  Operational definitions  Data Collected  Conclusion  Replicate  What is your population?  How did you find sample?  Control Group  Experimental Group  Independent Variable  Dependent Variable  Confounding Variables  Blind/Double Blind?  Placebo  Any Bias?

51.  Observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.  Very open to bias… Why?

52. Module 2: Research Strategies

53.  Determines the degree to which two variables are related to one another…  Correlation Coefficient  Correlation Coefficient: a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1).

54.  Value of 1 variable increases (or decreases) so does the value of the other variable.

55.  Value of 1 variable increases, the value of the other variable decreases.

56.  There is no relationship whatsoever between the two variables.

57.  Doesn’ t imply a cause and effect relationship--  Doesn’t determine why 2 variables are related--  But it is helpful in making predictions.

59. Module 2: Research Strategies

60.  Relies on self-reports: questionnaires, interviews, and surveys.  Efficient and inexpensive

61.  The total group being studied from which a sample is drawn.  Represents a population fairly:  Equal chance of being included.  If it is not random it is said to be biased.

63. Module 2: Research Strategies

64.  Causes something to happen  Manipulated by the experimenter  Should change the dependent variable  Effected by independent variable  Outcome of experiment  Variable being measured

65.  Not exposed to the independent variable  Results are compared to those of the experimental group

66.  Participants are ignorant (blind) to the expected outcome of the experiment  Single blind procedure  Double blind procedure?

67.  Observations  Problem/Issue  Theory  Hypothesis  Specific Experiment  All steps included  Operational definitions  Correlational study?  Case study?  Survey/Interview?  Data Collected  Conclusion  Replicate  What is your population?  How did you find sample?  Control Group  Experimental Group  Independent Variable  Dependent Variable  Confounding Variables  Blind/Double Blind?  Placebo  Any Bias?  Mean, Median Mode

68.  Non-active substance or condition instead of a drug or active agent  Given to the control group

69.  Video Time…  http://player.discover yeducation.com/index.cfm?guidAssetId=5F2 90E71-AB90-4842- A4D7- FB0DB55A682C&blnF romSearch=1&product code=US

70. Unit 2: Research Strategies

71.  Study same group of individuals many years  Very expensive and difficult to conduct

72.  Simultaneously study subjects from different age groups  Cheaper, easier  Differences may be due to factors other than development

74. Module 2: Research Strategies

75.  General nature of the research  Any potential risks  Refuse participation or withdraw  Conducted under certain circumstances  Only with the informed consent

76.  Individual data about participants should never be discussed or released.  Receive complete explanation of research at end of the study.  Important if research involves deception.

77. Module 2: Research Strategies

78.  Interest in animal behavior  Data may apply to humans  Easier due to the shorter life span  Easier to control  Not ethical to perform on humans

79. http://videos.howstuffworks.com/hsw/23818-the-brain-and-spinal-cord-an- experiment-video.htm

82.  Central Tendency = a single score that represents a whole set of scores. Central Tendency

83.  Mean = the average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the # of scores. Mean

84.  Median = the middle score in a distribution, half the scores are above it and half are below it. Median

85.  Mode = the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution Mode

86.  Range = the difference between the highest and lowest score in a distribution. Range  Standard Deviation= a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score. Standard Deviation

87.  Observations  Problem/Issue  Theory  Hypothesis  Specific Experiment  All steps included  Operational definitions  Correlational study?  Case study?  Survey/Interview?  Data Collected  Conclusion  Replicate  What is your population?  How did you find sample?  Control Group  Experimental Group  Independent Variable  Dependent Variable  Confounding Variables  Blind/Double Blind?  Placebo  Any Bias?  Mean, Median Mode

88.  Normal Curve (bell shaped)

89.  = a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scored fall near the mean (68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes.

90.  Representative samples are better than biased samples  Less-variable observations are more reliable than those that are more variable  More cases are better than fewer

91.  Statistical significance Statistical significance  The averages are reliable  The differences between averages is relatively large  Does imply the importance of the results

93.  Use this slide to add a concept to the presentation

94. Use this slide to add a table, chart, clip art, picture, diagram, or video clip. Delete this box when finished

95.  Play “Aliens Have Landed” (11:25) Segment #3 from Scientific American Frontiers: Video Collection for Introductory Psychology (2 nd edition).  Follow with a discussion on the unbiased scientific research.

96.  Technique using tools such as observation, experimentation, and statistical analysis to learn about the world  Psychology is thereby considered a science.  An application of critical thinking through observation and statistical analysis

97. Research and Research Methodology Method of asking questions then drawing logical supported conclusions Researchers need to be able to determine if conclusions are reasonable or not (critical thinking).

98. Common Sense Conclusions based solely on personal experience and sensible logic Can lead to incorrect conclusions The scientific method can help you better evaluate your hunches

99. Common Sense

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