1. Chapter 2 Plate Tectonics: A Scientific Revolution Unfolds

2. Continental drift: An idea before its time Alfred Wegener First proposed his continental drift hypothesis in 1915 Published The Origin of Continents and Oceans Continental drift hypothesis Supercontinent called Pangaea began breaking apart about 200 million years ago

3. Pangaea approximately 200 million years ago Figure 2.2

4. Continental drift: An idea before its time Continental drift hypothesis Continents "drifted" to present positions Evidence used in support of continental drift hypothesis Fit of the continents Fossil evidence Rock type and structural similarities Paleoclimatic evidence

5. Figure 2.3

6. Matching mountain ranges Figure 2.6

7. Paleoclimatic evidence Figure 2.7

8. The great debate Objections to the continental drift hypothesis Lack of a mechanism for moving continents Wegener incorrectly suggested that continents broke through the ocean crust, much like ice breakers cut through ice Strong opposition to the hypothesis from all areas of the scientific community

9. The great debate Continental drift and the scientific method Wegener’s hypothesis was correct in principle, but contained incorrect details A few scientists considered Wegener’s ideas plausible and continued the search

10. Continental drift and paleomagnetism Renewed interest in continental drift initially came from rock magnetism Magnetized minerals in rocks Show the direction to Earth’s magnetic poles Provide a means of determining their latitude of origin

11. Figure 2.8

12. Figure 2.9

13. Figure 2.10

14. Continental drift and paleomagnetism Polar wandering The apparent movement of the magnetic poles illustrated in magnetized rocks indicates that the continents have moved Indicates Europe was much closer to the equator when coal-producing swamps existed

15. Continental drift and paleomagnetism Polar wandering Curves for North America and Europe have similar paths but are separated by about 24  of longitude Differences between the paths can be reconciled if the continents are placed next to one another

16. Polar-wandering paths for Eurasia and North America Figure 2.11

17. A scientific revolution begins During the 1950s and 1960s technological strides permitted extensive mapping of the ocean floor Seafloor spreading hypothesis was proposed by Harry Hess in the early 1960s

18. Figure 2.12

19. A scientific revolution begins Geomagnetic reversals Earth's magnetic field periodically reverses polarity – the north magnetic pole becomes the south magnetic pole, and vice versa Dates when the polarity of Earth’s magnetism changed were determined from lava flows

20. Figure 2.13

21. A scientific revolution begins Geomagnetic reversals Geomagnetic reversals are recorded in the ocean crust In 1963 Vine and Matthews tied the discovery of magnetic stripes in the ocean crust near ridges to Hess’s concept of seafloor spreading

22. Figure 2.16

23. A scientific revolution begins Geomagnetic reversal Paleomagnetism was the most convincing evidence set forth to support the concepts of continental drift and seafloor spreading

24. Paleomagnetic reversals recorded in oceanic crust Figure 2.16

25. Plate tectonics: The new paradigm Earth’s major plates are associated with Earth's Lithosphere : A strong, rigid outer layer; Broken into pieces called Plates Consists of uppermost mantle and overlying crust Overlies a weaker region in the mantle called the asthenosphere

26. Plate tectonics: The new paradigm Earth’s major plates Seven major lithospheric plates Plates are in motion and continually changing in shape and size Largest plate is the Pacific plate Several plates include an entire continent plus a large area of seafloor

27. Earth’s plates Figure 2.19 (left side)

28. Earth’s plates Figure 2.19 (right side)

29. Plate tectonics: The new paradigm Earth’s major plates Plates move relative to each other at a very slow but continuous rate About 5 centimeters (2 inches) per year Cooler, denser slabs of oceanic lithosphere descend into the mantle

30. Plate tectonics: The new paradigm Plate boundaries Interactions among individual plates occur along their boundaries Types of plate boundaries Divergent plate boundaries (constructive margins) Convergent plate boundaries (destructive margins) Transform fault boundaries (conservative margins)

31. Plate tectonics: The new paradigm Plate boundaries Each plate is bounded by a combination of the three types of boundaries New plate boundaries can be created in response to changing forces

32. Divergent plate boundaries Most are located along the crests of oceanic ridges Oceanic ridges and seafloor spreading Along well-developed divergent plate boundaries, the seafloor is elevated forming oceanic ridges

33. Divergent plate boundary Figure 2.20

34. Divergent plate boundaries Oceanic ridges and seafloor spreading Seafloor spreading occurs along the oceanic ridge system Spreading rates and ridge topography Ridge systems exhibit topographic differences These differences are controlled by spreading rates

35. Divergent plate boundaries Continental rifting Splits landmasses into two or more smaller segments along a continental rift Examples include the East African rift valleys and the Rhine Valley in northern Europe Produced by extensional forces acting on lithospheric plates

36. Continental rifting Figure 2.21

37. Convergent plate boundaries Older portions of oceanic plates are returned to the mantle in these destructive plate margins Surface expression of the descending plate is an ocean trench Also called subduction zones Average angle of subduction = 45 

38. Convergent plate boundaries Types of convergent boundaries Oceanic-continental convergence Denser oceanic slab sinks into the asthenosphere Along the descending plate partial melting of mantle rock generates magma Resulting volcanic mountain chain is called a continental volcanic arc (Andes and Cascades)

39. Oceanic-continental convergence Figure 2.22 A

40. Convergent plate boundaries Types of convergent boundaries Oceanic-oceanic convergence When two oceanic slabs converge, one descends beneath the other Often forms volcanoes on the ocean floor If the volcanoes emerge as islands, a volcanic island arc is formed (Japan, Aleutian islands, Tonga islands)

41. Oceanic-oceanic convergence Figure 2.22 B

42. Convergent plate boundaries Types of convergent boundaries Continental-continental convergence Continued subduction can bring two continents together Less dense, buoyant continental lithosphere does not subduct Resulting collision between two continental blocks produces mountains (Himalayas, Alps, Appalachians)

43. Continental-continental convergence Figure 2.22 B

44. Transform fault boundaries Plates slide past one another and no new lithosphere is created or destroyed Transform faults Most join two segments of a mid-ocean ridge along breaks in the oceanic crust known as fracture zones A few (the San Andreas fault and the Alpine fault of New Zealand) cut through continental crust

45. Transform faults

46. Testing the plate tectonics model Evidence from ocean drilling Some of the most convincing evidence confirming seafloor spreading has come from drilling directly into ocean-floor sediment Age of deepest sediments Thickness of ocean-floor sediments verifies seafloor spreading

47. Testing the plate tectonics model Hot spots and mantle plumes Caused by rising plumes of mantle material Volcanoes can form over them (Hawaiian Island chain) Mantle plumes Long-lived structures Some originate at great depth, perhaps at the mantle-core boundary

48. The Hawaiian Islands Figure 2.27

49. Measuring plate motion Paleomagnetism and plate motions Paleomagnetism stored in rocks on the ocean floor provides a method for determining plate motions Both the direction and rate of seafloor spreading can be established

50. Measuring plate motion Measuring plate velocities from space Accomplished by establishing exact locations on opposite sides of a plate boundary and measuring relative motions Two methods are used Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI) Global Positioning System (GPS)

51. Plate motions Figure 2.29

52. What drives plate motions Researchers agree that convective flow in the mantle is the basic driving force of plate tectonics Forces that drive plate motion Slab-pull Ridge-push Slab suction

53. Forces driving plate motions Figure 2.30

54. What drives plate motions Models of plate-mantle convection Any model must be consistent with observed physical and chemical properties of the mantle Models Layering at 660 kilometers Whole-mantle convection Deep-layer model

55. Figure 2.31

56. Importance of plate tectonics The theory provides explanations for Earth’s major surface processes The geologic distribution of earthquakes, volcanoes, and mountains The distribution of ancient organisms and mineral deposits

57. Figure 2.A

58. Figure 2.AA

59. Figure 2.AB

60. Figure 2.AC

61. Figure 2.AD

62. Figure 2.AE

63. Figure 2.AF

64. End of Chapter 2