1. Brief History of Cognitive Psychology
Psychology 355: Cognitive Psychology Instructor: John Miyamoto 03/30/2016: Lecture 01-3
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2. Outline Ideas from 19th century European experimental psychology
Behaviorism and anti-cognitive psychology
Why did cognitive psychology undergo a revival from today
Overview of History of Cognitive Psychology
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr ‘16

3. Overview of the History of Cognitive Psychology
Precursors to cognitive psychology
Aristotle, Plato – epistemology, theory of ideas and their relation to human action
Experimental psychology begins in 19th century Germany
Franciscus Donders (response time analysis, method of subtraction)
Hermann von Helmholtz (perception, unconscious inference)
Hermann Ebbinghaus (experimental study of memory)
Wilhelm Wundt (analytic introspection, analysis of conscious experience)
Behaviorist hiatus in America: roughly 1920 – 1960
During the behaviorist period ( ), cognitive psychology continued to be studied in Europe.
Revival of cognitive psychology in America (1950 – 1970)
1970 – present: Cognitive psychology plays a major role in psychology pretty much everywhere in the world
Donder’s Mental Chronometry
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

4. Early Cognitive Psychology: F.C. Donders (1818-1889)
Mental chronometry: Measuring the duration of a cognitive process
Reaction-time (RT) (a.k.a. response time):
RT = the time interval between stimulus presentation and the response to the stimulus
Method of Subtraction: Used to infer how long a mental process takes when the process is not directly observable.
Method of subtraction is an example of a behavioral research method.
"Donders, Franciscus Cornelis ( )" by Alexander Seitz
(Photographic company) - SIL14-D4-14a.jpg from the Scientific Identity:
Portraits from the Dibner Library of the History of Science and Technology
(reworked). Licensed under Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons -
_(1818_-_1889).jpg#/media/File:Donders,_Franciscus_Cornelis _(1818_-_1889).jpg
TIME RT
Stimulus Presentation
Response
Definition of Simple RT and Choice RT
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

5. Simple and Choice Reaction Time and Measuring the Time It Takes to Choose
Simple RT task: Participant pushes a button quickly after a light appears.
Choice RT task: Participant pushes one button if light is on the right side, and a different button if light is on left side
Donder’s goal: To measure how long it takes a person to decide which button to press in the choice RT task.
How long is the decision process?
Diagram Showing Time Course of Simple RT
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

6. Diagram of Cognitive Processes During Simple RT
See 'D:\p355\RCODE\Donders Method.doc' for the R-code for this figure.
Time
Simple RT = (Response Completion) – (Stimulus Onset) In a simple RT task, the subject does not have to decide how to respond.
Diagram Showing Time Course of Choice RT
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

7. Diagram of Cognitive Processes During Choice RT
See 'D:\p355\RCODE\Donders Method.doc' for the R-code for this figure.
Time
Choice RT = (Response Completion) – (Stimulus Onset) In a choice RT task, the subject has to decide which response is appropriate.
Diagram showing the Decision Stage in the Information Process
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

8. Diagram of Cognitive Processes During Choice RT
Decision Time
See 'D:\p355\RCODE\Donders Method.doc' for the R-code for this figure.
Decision time = the length of time that it takes to decide which response is appropriate.
Question for the Class: How to Measure Decision Time?
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

9. Question for the Class: How Can We Measure the Duration of the Decision Stage in a Choice RT Task?
Donder’s goal: Measure how long it takes a person to decide which button to press in the choice RT task.
How long is the decision process?
Diagram comparing simple and choice RT
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

10. Method of Subtraction: Compare Simple RT to Choice RT
See 'D:\p355\RCODE\Donders Method.doc' for the R-code for this figure.
Choice RT
Method of Subtraction: Duration of Decision Stage (red) = Choice RT – Simple RT
Diagram Showing that the Perceiving Stages are Identical
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

11. Method of Subtraction: Compare Simple RT to Choice RT
Same
See 'D:\p355\RCODE\Donders Method.doc' for the R-code for this figure.
Choice RT
Diagram Showing that the Responding Stages are Identical
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

12. Method of Subtraction: Compare Simple RT to Choice RT
Same
See 'D:\p355\RCODE\Donders Method.doc' for the R-code for this figure.
Choice RT
Diagram Showing that the RT Difference Measures the Duration of the Decision Stage
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

13. Method of Subtraction: Compare Simple RT to Choice RT
Same
See 'D:\p355\RCODE\Donders Method.doc' for the R-code for this figure.
Choice RT
Method of Subtraction: Duration of Decision Stage (red) = Choice RT – Simple RT
What does Donder’s Method Show About Cognitive Psych?
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

14. Why is Donder’s Method of Subtraction Important for Cognitive Psychology?
It combines a behavioral study with a simple computational model of a cognitive process.
The combination yields an important conclusion.
Mental chronometry
Example of a purely or strictly behavioral study – no physiological measurements; no brain imaging.
Method of subtraction is a valid measure of mental duration if all of the assumptions are valid.
Unfortunately, the assumptions of this method are often not valid.
But Donder's ideas inspired improved methods that do lead to valid measurements of the duration of mental processes.
* In Psych 355, we will see many behavioral studies of cognition.
* In Psych 355, we will not study the mathematical details of computational models of cognition.
fMRI Method of Subtraction
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

15. Subtraction Methods in fMRI Brain Imaging
Activations are regions of significant change from a control condition to a test condition.
Test Condition: Subject views picture.
Control Condition: Subject fixates a blank screen.
Brain image shows regions of significant activation when comparing Test Condition to Control Condition. (Slice of brain is viewed from above.)
The purpose of this slide is simply to show that subtraction methods are used in modern fMRI studies.
Specific details are not important.
Helmholtz & Unconscious Inference
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

16. Early Cognitive Psychology: H. L. F. von Helmholtz (1821 – 1894)
Great mathematician, physicist, psychologist
Contributions to psychology: perception, especially color vision, hearing, optics, unconscious inference
Helmholtz invented idea of Unconscious Inference
Some of our perceptions are the result of unconscious assumptions we make about the environment
We infer much of what we know about the world
Diagram that Illustrates Unconscious Inference (Occlusion)
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

17. Unconscious Perceptual Inference
The display in (a) looks like (b) a gray rectangle in front of a light rectangle; but it could be ....
… (c) a gray rectangle and a six-sided figure that are lined up appropriately
or (d) a gray rectangle and a strange-looking figure that are lined up appropriately.
Repeat this Slide without the Rectangles
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

18. Unconscious Perceptual Inference
The display in (a) looks like (b) a gray rectangle in front of a light rectangle; but it could be ....
… (c) a gray rectangle and a six-sided figure that are lined up appropriately
or (d) a gray rectangle and a strange-looking figure that are lined up appropriately.
Example of Unconscious Inference: An Occluded Cube
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

19. Another Example of Unconscious Inference
We rapidly and automatically infer that there is a cube behind a screen with holes in it.
Your knowledge of cubes and occlusion (seeing through holes) determines what you perceive in this figure.
Note Helmholtz's unconscious inference at work here.
Example of Unconscious Inference: Craters versus Mounds
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

20. Example: Craters or Mounds?
Craters Mounds
What is the shape of the sand on the left and on the right?
Where is the light coming from on the left and on the right?
Same Image + Light from Above Assumption
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

21. Example: Craters or Mounds?
Craters Mounds
“Light comes from above” assumption guides perception.
Goldstein's (4th ed.) Example of a Door Decoration
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

22. Goldstein Figure 3.24 (4th ed., p. 68)X O
Is "X" on a surface that projects out, or is it set in?
Is "O" on a surface that project out, or is it set in?
Same Slide but with Rotation
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

23. Goldstein Figure 3.24 (4th ed., p. 68)
Now rotate the figure! X O
Diagram Showing Time Course of Choice RT
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

24. Why Is the Idea of Unconscious Inference Important?
Unconscious inferences contribute in many ways to our perceptions and beliefs.
Cognitive psychology attempts to discover:
(a) what unconscious inferences occur in the formation of our beliefs;
(b) the processes by which such inferences are made.
Other Early Cognitive Psychologists – Ebbinghaus & Wundt
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

25. Other Important Early Cognitive Research
Ebbinghaus (1850 – 1909) and the Method of Savings
Important memory research
We will talk about this later in the course
Wundt (1832 – 1920)
How sensations combine to form percepts
Analytic introspection
Return to Slide Showing the Overview of History of Cog Psych
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

26. Overview of the History of Cognitive Psychology
Precursors to cognitive psychology
Aristotle, Plato – epistemology, theory of ideas and their relation to human action
Experimental psychology begins in 19th century Germany
Franciscus Donders (response time analysis, method of subtraction)
Hermann von Helmholtz (perception, unconscious inference)
Hermann Ebbinghaus (experimental study of memory)
Wilhelm Wundt (analytic introspection, analysis of conscious experience)
Behaviorist hiatus in America: roughly 1920 – 1960
During the behaviorist period ( ), cognitive psychology continued to be studied in Europe.
Revival of cognitive psychology in America (1950 – 1970)
1970 – present: Cognitive psychology plays a major role in psychology pretty much everywhere in the world
Done!
Behaviorist Hiatus in America
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

27. Behaviorist Hiatus – Roughly 1920 - 1960
John Watson
Influenced by positivist philosophy. The goal of science is to predict whatever is observable.
Science should eliminate assumptions about whatever is not observable. (Questionable)
Consciousness is not observable. Eliminate it from psychological theory. Anti-introspectionist.
Opposed to theories that postulated unobserved psychological processes
Clark Hull – Stimulus/Response (S/R) learning model.
Edwin Guthrie
B. F. Skinner – Reinforcement theory
Behaviorism was an American approach to psychology – not so influential in Europe and elsewhere.
Cognitive Psychology During the Behaviorist Period
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

28. Cognitive Psychology During the Behaviorist Period
William James (1842 – 1910; cognitive psychology)
Jean Piaget – genetic epistemology
Lev Vygotsky – cognitive development and education
Sir Frederick Bartlett (constructive memory processes)
Gestalt psychology – Kurt Lewin, Wolfgang Kohler
The beginnings of the computer revolution. Alan Turing, Norbert Wiener, John von Neumann
Behaviorism Loses Its Grip on Psychology
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

29. Wednesday, March 30, 2016: The Lecture Ended Here
Psych 355,, Miyamoto, Spr '16

30. Behaviorism lost its grip on American psychology during the 1960's
Behaviorism lost its grip on American psychology during the 1960's. Why did this happen?
Problematic results
Learning without responding: Rats that are temporarily paralyzed with atropine can learn the layout of a maze from being wheeled around the maze.
Learning without reinforcement: Rats that explore a maze with no reinforcements show learning of the maze when they are later rewarded for running the maze.
Why Behaviorism Lost Its Grip on Psych - Continuation of this Slide
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

31. Behaviorism lost its grip on American psychology during the 1960's
Behaviorism lost its grip on American psychology during the 1960's. Why did this happen?
Problematic results
Behaviorism couldn’t explain what scientists wanted to understand, e.g., language, perception, attention, reasoning. (Lashley, Chomsky, Miller-Galanter-Pribram).
Alternative approaches came along that looked more promising.
Structural models, e.g., transformational grammar, genetic epistemology.
Computer models, e.g., the General Problem Solver of Newell and Simon.
Change of focus to experimentation on human information processing.
Is it unscientific to postulate unobserved psychological processes in a psychological theory?
"It takes a theory to kill a theory" – Clyde Coombs (I'm not sure that he was the first person to state this idea in this way.)
Revival of Cognitive Psychology – Information Processing
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

32. Revival of Cognitive Psychology: 1950 - 1960
Alan Newell & Herbert Simon: Computer models of problem solving
Noam Chomsky - Grammar of natural language
Lashley – Neuroscience
Hubel & Wiesel – Receptive fields in the visual cortex
Cognitive Psychology Since 1960
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16

33. Cognitive Psychology Since 1960
Behavioral Approach: All dependent measures in a study are observed behavior.
Experimental cognitive psychology – Emphasizes the behavioral approach
Perception & Attention, Memory, Language, Reasoning & problem solving, Cognitive development
Computer modeling of cognitive processes – Usually a mixture of the behavioral and computational approach
Physiological Approach
Single-cell recordings
PET, fMRI, ERP
Study effects of drugs
Tomorrow: Some examples of behavioral approaches and neuroscience approaches to cognitive psychology.
Physiological Approach: All dependent measures in a study are measures of physiological states or physiological responses.
Hybrid Approach (Cognitive Neuroscience): The study attempts to explain behavioral responses, physiological responses, and may include computational modeling of behavior.
END
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16