1. 1 A Universal Turing Machine

2. 2 Turing Machines are “hardwired” they execute only one program A limitation of Turing Machines: Real Computers are re-programmable

3. 3 Solution: Universal Turing Machine Reprogrammable machine Simulates any other Turing Machine Attributes:

4. 4 Universal Turing Machine simulates any other Turing Machine Input of Universal Turing Machine: Description of transitions of Initial tape contents of

5. 5 Universal Turing Machine Description of Tape Contents of State of Three tapes Tape 2 Tape 3 Tape 1

6. 6 We describe Turing machine as a string of symbols: We encode as a string of symbols Description of Tape 1

7. 7 Alphabet Encoding Symbols: Encoding:

8. 8 State Encoding States: Encoding: Head Move Encoding Move: Encoding:

9. 9 Transition Encoding Transition: Encoding: separator

10. 10 Machine Encoding Transitions: Encoding: separator

11. 11 Tape 1 contents of Universal Turing Machine: encoding of the simulated machine as a binary string of 0’s and 1’s

12. 12 A Turing Machine is described with a binary string of 0’s and 1’s The set of Turing machines forms a language: each string of the language is the binary encoding of a Turing Machine Therefore:

13. 13 Language of Turing Machines L = { 010100101, 00100100101111, 111010011110010101, …… } (Turing Machine 1) (Turing Machine 2) ……

14. 14 Countable Sets

15. 15 Infinite sets are either: Countable or Uncountable

16. 16 Countable set: There is a one to one correspondence between elements of the set and Natural numbers Any finite set Any Countably infinite set: or

17. 17 Example: Even integers: The set of even integers is countable Positive integers: Correspondence: corresponds to

18. 18 Example:The set of rational numbers is countable Rational numbers:

19. 19 Naïve Proof Rational numbers: Positive integers: Correspondence: Doesn’t work: we will never count numbers with nominator 2:

20. 20 Better Approach

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26. 26 Rational Numbers: Correspondence: Positive Integers:

27. 27 We proved: the set of rational numbers is countable by describing an enumeration procedure

28. 28 Definition An enumeration procedure for is a Turing Machine that generates all strings of one by one Let be a set of strings and Each string is generated in finite time

29. 29 Enumeration Machine for Finite time: strings output (on tape)

30. 30 If for a set there is an enumeration procedure, then the set is countable Observation:

31. 31 Example: The set of all strings is countable We will describe an enumeration procedure Proof:

32. 32 Naive procedure: Produce the strings in lexicographic order: Doesn’t work: strings starting with will never be produced

33. 33 Better procedure: 1. Produce all strings of length 1 2. Produce all strings of length 2 3. Produce all strings of length 3 4. Produce all strings of length 4.......... Proper Order

34. 34 Produce strings in Proper Order: length 2 length 3 length 1

35. 35 Theorem: The set of all Turing Machines is countable Proof: Find an enumeration procedure for the set of Turing Machine strings Any Turing Machine can be encoded with a binary string of 0’s and 1’s

36. 36 1. Generate the next binary string of 0’s and 1’s in proper order 2. Check if the string describes a Turing Machine YES: if YES: print string on output tape NO: if NO: ignore string Enumeration Procedure: Repeat

37. 37 Uncountable Sets

38. 38 A set is uncountable if it is not countable Definition:

39. 39 Theorem: Let be an infinite countable set The powerset of is uncountable

40. 40 Proof: Since is countable, we can write Elements of

41. 41 Elements of the powerset have the form: ……

42. 42 We encode each element of the power set with a binary string of 0’s and 1’s Powerset element Encoding

43. 43 Let’s assume (for contradiction) that the powerset is countable. Then: we can enumerate the elements of the powerset

44. 44 Powerset element Encoding

45. 45 Take the powerset element whose bits are the complements in the diagonal

46. 46 New element: (birary complement of diagonal)

47. 47 The new element must be some of the powerset However, that’s impossible: the i-th bit of must be the complement of itself from definition of Contradiction!!!

48. 48 Since we have a contradiction: The powerset of is uncountable

49. 49 An Application: Languages Example Alphabet : The set of all Strings: infinite and countable

50. 50 Example Alphabet : The set of all Strings: infinite and countable A language is a subset of :

51. 51 Example Alphabet : The set of all Strings: infinite and countable The powerset of contains all languages: uncountable

52. 52 Languages: uncountable Turing machines: countable There are more languages than Turing Machines

53. 53 There are some languages not accepted by Turing Machines (These languages cannot be described by algorithms) Conclusion:

54. 54 Languages Accepted by Turing Machines Languages not accepted by Turing Machines