2. Chapter 22

3. 1700

4. 1800

5. 1900

6. The Crimean War [1854-1856] Russia [claimed protectorship over the Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire] Ottoman Empire Great Britain France Piedmont-Sardinia Causes Russia wanted to extend influence over Ottoman territories (Balkans) Russia angry when Ottomans assign care of holy places to Roman Catholics

7.  War erupts between Russia and Ottoman Empire when Russia occupies Moldavia and Walachia  Ottoman Empire > “The Sick Man of Europe”  France and Britain join the Ottomans, to Russia’s surprise and displeasure, the Austrians and Prussians remain neutral  Motives > Great Britain? ▪ Mediterranean Sea is their lake  Poorly equipped and commanded troops lead to massive suffering on both sides  Helped by French and British forces, the Ottomans defeat the Russians

8. The Crimean War

9.  Great Figures  Florence Nightingale ▪ Addressed inadequate medical treatment ▪ Helped found modern nursing profession ▪ First women to achieve international fame  Alexander II of Russia ▪ Succeeded his father during the war ▪ Negotiated peace and instituted reform

10.  Results  Russia gives up land around Danube River and Black Sea  Russia renounces its claims to protect Orthodox Christians in Ottoman Empire  Military embarrassments ▪ Large loss of life  Image of invincible Russia crushed ▪ Reforms and rearms > becomes stronger  Sardinia can work with France to try to est. Italy  Concert of Europe? dissolved ▪ General meeting between nations to settle differences  Balance of power restored

11.  Tanzimat – reorganization of the empire  Liberalized economy  Freedom of religion  Hatti-i-Humayun – spelled out rights of non-Muslims  Equal chances in the military, state employment, and admission to state schools  Abolished torture  Gave property rights  In some regions of the empire, local rulers made reforms hard to enforce  Reforms are an attempt to modernize & secularize the empire > make Ottomans more “European”  Fighting to survive  Need to gain loyalty of Christian subjects

12. Count Cavour [The “Head”] Giuseppi Garibaldi [The “Sword”] King Victor Emmanuel II Giuseppi Mazzini [The “Heart”] Italian Nationalist Leaders

13.  Nationalism aspirations emerge when Napoleon I occupies Italy  Giuseppe Mazzini first attempts to establish an Italian republic  Approach called romantic republicanism  Mazzini > most important nationalist leader in Europe  Mazzini with help of Giuseppe Garibaldi lead insurrections  Goal > Drive out Austria  Obstacles to unification  Austria  Papacy  People > conservatives in Italy  1850 > “Italy” > geographic expression rather than political entity

14.  Minister of Piedmont (Kingdom of Sardinia)  Transformed Italy into a nation-state under a constitutional monarchy, rather than a republic  How? ▪ Armed force ▪ Secret diplomacy  Cavour a nationalist but different from Mazzini  Rejected republicanism > support monarchy  Economic and material progress replaced romantic ideals  Used the French to achieve his goal  Drives out Austrians in the north  South > uses Garibaldi and romantic republicanism to conquer rest of peninsula

15.  Victor Emanuel I is named King of Italy (1861)  Conservative Constitutional Monarchy  Tensions high between industrialized Piedmont north and rural, poor Southern Italy  Conservative constitutional monarchy put into place, but Parliament is filled with corruption  Venetia in 1866 and Rome (minus Vatican City) in 1870 become part of Italy  Still some territory in North controlled by Austria  Desire to liberate “Italia irredenta” > unredeemed Italy

16.  Most important political development in Europe between 1848-1914  Transformed balance of power  Congress of Vienna est. German Confederation  Made up of 39 diff states  Austria & Prussia largest  1850s unification seemed remote  William I (Hohenzollern family) becomes king in 1861  Fights with Parliament (liberals) over taxes to increase army  Turns to Otto Von Bismarck for help

17.  Would be more responsible for reshaping European history more than anybody else for the next 30 years (1860’s-1890’s)  Political career extensive  Starts out a reactionary but mellows into a conservative  Prime minister 1862  Used German nationalism as a strategy to enable Prussian conservatives to outflank Prussian liberals

18.  Bismarck did not want to include all German speaking lands into united Germany  Especially Austria  Unification required complex diplomacy  Danish War (1864)  Austria & Prussia defeat Denmark  Bismarck gains prestige  Through diplomacy gains allies in Italy, France, & Russia  Austro-Prussian War (1866)  Tension over territory won in Danish War  Prussia wins  Treaty of Prague makes Prussia only major power among German Confederation  Northern German Confederation formed  Each state governed itself > military under federal control  Pres. was Prussian King & Chancellor was Bismarck  Two House Legislature > Bundesrat & Reichstag  Germany becomes essentially a military monarchy  Prussian liberals defeated

19.  Bismarck needed southern Germany to complete unification  Spanish Bourbon queen dethroned by coup & replaced by a Hohenzollern king  France angry  Ems telegram provokes war  Napoleon III not only defeated but captured  1871 in Hall of Mirrors in Palace of Versailles the German Empire is declared  Germany also receives Alsace and part of Lorraine  A new powerful states emerges rich in natural resources  Blow to European liberalism > Germany a conservative state  France & Austria (led by Habsburgs) have to make a change

20.  France’s defeat in the Franco-Prussian war spelled the end of the liberal empire  A govt. of national defense is created > new National Assembly > makes settlement with Prussia > Treaty of Frankfurt > people of Paris feel betrayed  The Paris Commune – radicals and socialists attempt to govern Paris away from the rest of France, but are put down by the National Assembly at the cost of 20,000 lives / victory for the nation-state  The Third Republic – when quarreling monarchists can’t agree on a new king, the National Assembly turns to a republic system  Two legislative house ▪ a Chamber of Deputies elected by universal male suffrage ▪ a Senate chosen indirectly  President elected by both legislative houses

21.  French Captain Alfred Dreyfus (Jewish) is falsely accused of passing secret information to the Germans (1894)  Evidence was weak (forged)  Dreyfus is sent to Devil’s Island, secrets still cont. to flow  Evidence of forgery comes in, but he is not acquitted  Dreyfus is still guilty according to the army, French Catholic Church, political conservatives, and anti-Semitic newspapers  Liberal novelist Emile Zola, along with numerous liberals, radicals, and socialists call for a new trial for Dreyfus  President of France pardons Dreyfus and the conviction is set aside in 1906  Significance?  Puts conservatives on the defensive for framing an innocent man and embracing anti-Semitism  Unites groups in the political left  Divides Third Republic

22.  The empire in the 1840’-1860’s remained  dynastic, absolutist, and agrarian as compared with the rest of Europe  Francis Joseph & ministers attempted to centralize administration  Austrians (German Speaking) dominating govt.  Failure to support Russia in Crimean War meant Tsar Alexander II would no longer help preserve Habsburg rule in Hungary  Defeat by France in 1859 & Prussia in 1866 confirms that a new government is needed

23.  Empire made up of several different ethnicities  Main two > Austrians and Hungarians  Solution > Ausgleich (Compromise) of 1867  Dual Monarchy > Austria-Hungary  Francis Joseph crowned king of Hungary  Almost two different states besides sharing ▪ Common monarch, army, and foreign relations  Magyars gained a free hand (kind of happy currently)  Had their own govt. basically (their own parliament)

24.  Magyars now had nationality as they basically controlled the Hungarian part of Austria-Hungary  The Romanians, Croatians, and especially the Czechs opposed the Compromise of 1867 > Why?  German speaking Austrians & Hungarian Magyars controlled all the other nationalities  Czechs > most vocal > want what Hungarians have  Political instability follows  Nationalism grows stronger in late 1800s  Language was the defining factor for a nation  Wanting to be linked by a common race and language; Croats, Poles, Ukrainians, Romanians, Italians, Bosnians, and Serbs all look towards nationhood  Consequences of nationalism?  Two World Wars and unrest even today

25.  Serfdom abolished > for a long time only nation where it existed  Positives – serfs gain rights to marry without permission, to buy and sell land, to sue in court and to pursue trades  Negatives – over a forty-nine year period serfs have to pay back, including interest, their landlords in order to receive their land  Result was large debt  Fortunately in 1905, the govt. finally cancelled the debts  Local government reform – local government run by a system of provincial and county councils, which proved to be largely ineffective  Underfunded  Judicial reform – included equality before the law, impartial hearings, uniform procedures, judicial independence, and trial by jury  Military reform – service requirements lowered from twenty-five to fifteen years and discipline is relaxed slightly  Largest military in Europe  Repression in Poland – Poland placed under Russian laws and language  Merely seen as a Russian province

26.  Alexander Herzen  Started a movement called populism, resistance to reforms set by Alexander  Made of students and intellectuals ▪ Went to the peasants with their message  Sought a social revolution through peasantry ▪ Chief radical society > Land and Freedom ▪ Many peasants turned the radicals into the police  Resort to terrorism after the Tsar uses harsh punishments  Land and Freedom split into two groups > one dissolved and the other was the ▪ The People’s Will – terrorist group that assassinated Alexander II

27.  Autocratic and repressive  Rolled back his father’s reforms > Nicholas I  Strengthened secret police and censorship of the press  He confirms all the evils the revolutionaries feared  His son will find out autocracy will not be able to survive the pressures of the 20 th century

28.  Must understand first > Britain seen as your ideal liberal state  1860’s push for the working class to have a vote  Surprisingly the Conservatives in the House of Commons led by Benjamin Disraeli accomplishes this goal  Almost doubles the electorate (1,430,000-2,470,000)  Refresher ▪ Two parts to British Parliament ▪ Lower house > House of Commons (Democratically elected) ▪ Upper house > House of Lords (National Legislature)  By doing this Disraeli thought Conservatives would win more support  He was right > Conservative Party dominates politics in 20 th c.  The new prime minister elected however is a liberal  William Gladstone in 1868

29.  Freedom of religion and class  Competitive exams replace patronage for civil service  Voting by secret ballot  The Education Act of 1870  Established that the government, not the church would run the elementary schools, more schools built  Significance?  Removed abuses without destroying institutions  Reforms a mode of state building > reinforced loyalty while abolishing abuses

30.  Disraeli and Gladstone differed on most issues  Disraeli actually talked a better line that he performed  Public Health Act of 1875 – reaffirmed duty of the state to interfere with private property to protect health and physical well-being  Artisan Dwelling Act of 1875 – government becomes actively involved in providing housing for the working class  He also gave protection to trade unions and allowed picket lines

31.  Gladstone, again prime minister in 1880 has to deal with the Irish wanting home rule – Irish control of local government  Disestablished the Church of Ireland (Anglican branch) ▪ Irish Catholics no longer had to pay for the Anglican Church  Compensation provided for Irish tenants who were evicted from their land  Another act > Tenant rights established  Coercion Act passed to restore law and order to Ireland  Irish still wanted a just land settlement  Leader of Irish movement > Charles Stewart Parnell  The Home Rule question fought in Parliament between 1886 and 1914  When the rule was finally passed (1914), it was then suspended due to World War I  Significance  Irish question is going to dramatically affect British politics  British domestic issues could not be solved due to the political divisions the Ireland question created