2. A. Environmental policy: why is it so controversial? 1. Creates both winners and losers a) Losers may not want to pay the costs b) Example: auto emissions control 2. Shrouded in scientific uncertainty so problems and solutions are uncertain a) Example: greenhouse effect b) Scientists do not know how large the greenhouse effect is, and what should be done about it 3. Takes the form of entrepreneurial politics a) Encourages emotional appeals b) May lead to distorted priorities c) Example: the possibility that cancer is caused by pesticides receives a higher profile than does pollution-causing runoff from farms and towns

3. 4. Profoundly affects how federal government deals with states and other nations a) States have passed more than 36 laws to lower emission of various greenhouse gases b) Government participated in drafting 1997 Kyoto Protocol calling for 5% worldwide reduction in greenhouse gases (1) Clinton administration never pushed for Senate ratification of treaty (2) Treaty allows several countries to keep generating gases, but requires a 25% decrease in U.S. by 2012

4. A. Environmental policy is shaped by unique features of United States politics 1. In U.S., policy has the following characteristics a) Adversarial political culture b) Rules are often uniform nationally (e.g., auto emissions) c) Many regulators and rules, strict deadlines, and expensive technologies required d) Government and business often conflict e) Example: Clean Air Act took thirteen years to revise in Congress (1977-1990)

5. 2. In England, policy has the following characteristics a) Rules are flexible and regional b) Compliance is voluntary, it does not rely on formal enforcement c) Government and business cooperate d) Policies are effective 3. In the U.S., implementing environmental policy depends heavily on states a) Methods to achieve standards are left to states, subject to federal control b) Local politics influence allocations (1) Sewage treatment plants are designed, built and operated by states (2) States decide where to dispose of radioactive waste c) Federalism reinforces adversarial politics d) Separation of powers provides multiple points of access

6. A. Environmental movement increased its momentum in the 1960s 1. Santa Barbara oil spill (1969), Earth day (1970), and aroused public 2. Numerous legislative success a) 1970: Environmental Protection Agency established, Clean Air Act passed b) 1972: Clean water legislation passed c) 1973: Endangered Species Act passed

7. B. Global Warming raises policy problems 1. Science community is deeply divided over this problem 2. Activists have been more influential than scientists, to date C. Endangered Species Act also generates economic problems 1. Forbids buying or selling any creature or plant that is likely to become extinct unless it receives special protection 2. Regulations also forbid adversely affecting habits of endangered species 3. Firms and agencies that wish to build anything in an area where an endangered species lives must comply with these regulations, often at a substantial cost

8. A. Clean Air Act (1970) imposed tough restrictions 1. Public demanded improvements - initially, entrepreneurial politics 2. 1975: 90% reduction of hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide 3. 1976: 90% reduction in nitrogen oxides, as well 4. Led to a reliance on catalytic converters, because there was not enough time to redesign the engines

9. B. Emergence of majoritarian politics in auto pollution 1. States were required to restrict the public use of cars a) If auto emissions controls were insufficient - L.A., Denver, New York, etc.- then car pools, gas rationing, parking bans b) Efforts failed: opposition too great c) Congress and EPA backed down, postponing deadlines 2. Consumers, auto industry, and unions objected to standards for new cars a) Cars were now more expensive b) Catalytic converters caused a loss of horsepower c) Car industry feared a loss of competitiveness d) Unions fears a loss of jobs

10. 3. Clean air act was weakened in 1977 but revived in 1990 with tougher standards; deadlines were again delayed 4. Most clean air laws passed since 1990 target particular industries (e.g., construction, agriculture) C. Public will support tough laws 1. When someone else pays 2. If costs are hidden (e.g., more expensive cars) 3. But not if they have to change habits (e.g., car pools)

11. D. Majoritarian politics when people believe the costs are low 1. Example: National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA) 2. Requires environmental impact statement (EIS) 3. Does not require specific action 4. Passed Congress with overwhelming support 5. But encouraged numerous lawsuits that block or delay projects 6. Popular support remains strong because costs appear low, benefits high

12. E. Majoritarian politics when people believe the costs are high 1. Example: Increased gasoline taxes a) Would discourage driving, save fuel, reduce smog b) Most would pay, most would benefit c) But costs come long before benefits d) And benefits may not be obvious 2. Easier to raise gas tax if benefits are concrete, such as highways, bridges, a reduction in the federal deficit

13. A. Source of acid rain 1. Burning of high-sulfur coal in mid-western factories 2. Winds carry sulfuric acid eastward 3. Rains bring acid to earth B. Effects of acid rain 1. Acidification of lakes in East 2. Destruction of forests in East 3. Long-term and some short- term effects are unclear

14. C. Regional battle 1. East versus Midwest, Canada versus the United States 2. Midwestern businesses deny blame and costs D. Solutions and compromises 1. One alternative is to burn low-sulfur coal a) Effective but expensive b) Low-sulfur coal comes from West. High-sulfur is local to Midwest factories 2. Another alternative is to install smokestack scrubbers a) Costly, not always effective, and leaves sludge b) But scrubbers allow the use of cheap, high-sulfur coal 3. Congress voted for scrubbers for all new plants a) Including those that burned low-sulfur coal b) Even if plant was next to low-sulfur coal mine

15. 4. Political advantages a) Protected jobs of high-sulfur coal miners who had powerful allies in Congress b) Environmentalists preferred scrubbers as as a solution to problem c) Scrubber manufacturers preferred scrubbers d) Eastern governors preferred scrubbers because these made their plants less likely to close and move west 5. Practical disadvantages a) Failed to allow for plants that burn low-sulfur coal b) Scrubbers didn’t work well 6. Stalemate for 13 years

16. 7. Two-step regulation proposed by Bush became part of the Clean Air Act of 1990 a) Before 1995: some plants could choose their approach to reducing emissions by a fixed amount b) 1995-2000: sharper reductions for many more plants, requiring the use of some scrubbers c) Sulfur dioxide allowances could be bought and sold d) Financial compensation provided for coal miners who lose jobs e) A host of new laws (and potential battles) in 2004- 2005

17. E. Interest-group politics also affects other environmental issues 1. Ex: zoning regulations and land-use controls 2. Established residents oppose developers F. New interest groups 1. More fervent and committed than ever, with a stake in current policy 2. Able to block policy change 3. Examples 1.Environmental protection industry: makes products designed to improve the environment 2.Environmental Defense Fund

18. A. Issue: use and runoff of pesticides 1. Farmers have mostly resisted policy entrepreneurs 2. DDT is the exception B. EPA efforts to evaluate safety of all pesticides 1. Given mandate by Congress in 1972 2. Program has not succeeded a)Too many pesticides to evaluate 1.Many have only long-term effects, which require extended study 2.Expensive and time-consuming to evaluate b)Benefits of pesticides may outweigh harm

19. 3. Political complications a) Farmers are well represented in Congress b) Subsidies often encourage overproduction and that also encourages overuse of pesticides c) Damage is hard to see and dramatize 4. EPA budget for reviewing pesticides is kept small 5. Few pesticides have been removed from market a) Only those receiving heavy media coverage like DDT in 1972-entrepreneurial politics b) Aided by scientific research that suggests human health effects are minimal

20. C. Timber industry also has client politics 1. Issues: access to U.S. Forest Service timber, clear-cutting, harvesting old- growth forests 2. Congress has supported loggers a)Forest Service has been forced to sell harvesting rights at below-market prices b)Subsidizes Industry 3. Endangered species (spotted owl) has become a way for policy entrepreneurs to stop clear-cutting

21. A. Why is a coherent environmental policy so difficult to formulate and affect? 1. Many environmental problems are not clear-cut 2. Goals are often unclear 3. Means of achieving goals (command and control strategy) are complicated a)Local circumstances b)Technological problems c)Economic costs

22. B. Examples of EPA & politics 1. What is the problem? a)EPA is not left alone to define problem b)Scandals and congressional demands can shift priorities 2. What are the costs and benefits? a)People do not distinguish between realistic and unrealistic threats, reasonable & unreasonable costs b)Difficult to keep policy focused on real risks, not diverted by unfounded popular concerns 3. What are our goals? a)Many are completely unrealistic b)EPA is forced to ask for extensions and revisions c)Enforcement agencies therefore seem to be giving in to industries

23. 4. How do we achieve our goals? a) Rules have been replaced by incentives 1)Offsets 2)Bubble standard 3)Pollution allowances (or banks) b) Complaints about command-and-control strategy are now coming from environmental groups and government 1)Clinton administration reexamined old approaches 2)People are learning from experience

24. The results 1. Environment has improved since 1970 in some aspects: a.Less air pollution-less carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, lead b.May be less water pollution but harder to judge 2. Hazardous wastes remain a problem