1. Policy Making Process

2. Government and Policymaking Policymaking is the pivotal stage in the political process. To understand public policy, we must know decisions are made. Government agencies are at the core of policymaking. Two-way process: Upward flow of influence and demands from society Downward flow of decisions from the government

3. Constitutions and Decision Rules A constitution establishes the basic rules of decision-making, rights, and the distribution of authority in a political system. Written constitutions important in political systems based on the rule of law Constitutions contain sets of decision rules. These are the basic rules governing how decisions are made. Policymaking is the conversion of social interests and demands into authoritative public decisions. Constitutions establish the rules by which this happens. Constitutions confer the power to propose policies on specific groups and institutions.

4. Constitutions and Decision Rules Decision rules Determine what political resources are valuable in influencing decision and how to acquire and use these resources. Different decision rules have different attractions. Inclusive rules (majority rule; cooperative rule) Can protect against hasty decisions But they can also give a minority the power to block proposals favored by a majority The more inclusive the voting rules are the less likely it is that any decision can be made at all. Less inclusive rules make it easier to reach a policy, but many interests may be ignored.

5. Constitutions and Decision Rules The government as a whole and its institutions have decision rules. Numerous rules affect the policymaking process. In modern assemblies rules about voting - egalitarian rules; one person, one vote Dictatorships - decision making is hierarchical Pure hierarchy: only the vote of the person at the top counts When decisions are made through equal voting, the inclusiveness of the decision rule still shapes the outcome. Simple majority voting Qualified majorities sometimes required for particularly consequential decisions It is important that decision rules in a democracy be transparent and stable.

6. Making Constitutions Constitution making is a fundamental political act. It creates of transforms decision rules. Britain unusual in it does not have a formal written constitution Has a long-accepted and highly developed set of customs and conventions Gradual and peaceful political change Often new constitutions arise with civil upheaval. An exception: The European Union Decades since WWII have seen much constitutional experimentation. India Nigeria Eastern Europe Russia Other Soviet successor states South Africa

7. Democracy and Authoritarianism The most important distinction in policymaking is between democratic and authoritarian systems. Democracy means government by the people. Direct or indirect participation by the public Institutions facilitate indirect participation: elections, competitive political parties, free mass media, representative assemblies In authoritarian regimes the policymakers are chosen by military councils, hereditary families, dominant political parties and the like. Citizens are either ignored or pressed into symbolic assent.

8. Democracy and Authoritarianism The basic decision rules of political systems - both democratic and authoritarian - differ along three important dimensions: The separation of powers between different branches of government The geographic distribution of authority between the central (national) government and lower levels, such as states, provinces, or municipalities Limitations on government authority

9. Separation of Government Powers Theory of separation of powers Locke and Montesquieu Madison and Hamilton Classic separation of powers theory Argued there are two forms of representative democratic government Presidential Two separate agencies of government: executive and legislative Separately elected and authorized by the people Fixed terms; cannot unseat the other branch; each with specific powers Coordination must be achieved to make policy Parliamentary Executive and legislative branches are interdependent Legislative branch directly elected; prime minister and cabinet emerge from the legislature Confidence relationship Do not experience the form of divided government that is common under presidentialism

11. Separation of Government Powers Not all democracies fit neatly into the presidential or parliamentary category. France- “semi-presidential” In some mixed types, the president and the legislature are separately elected, but the president has the power to dissolve the legislature. In such systems, the cabinet may be appointed by the president, but subject to dismissal by the legislature. Debates have emerged as to the “best” system.

12. Geographic Distribution of Government Power Confederal - U.S. under the Articles of Confederation Federal - U.S., Germany, Russia, India, Nigeria, Mexico, and Brazil Unitary - Britain, France, China, Japan and Iran Most of the world’s states are unitary Only 18 states are federal

14. Geographic Distribution of Government Power Federalism is commonly thought to have several advantages: In culturally divided societies it may help protect ethnic, linguistic, or religious minorities, particularly if they are geographically concentrated. Serve as a check on overly ambitious rules and thus protect markets and citizen freedoms May allow subunits to experiment with different policy programs But it promotes choice and diversity at the expense of equality. Sometimes there is a discrepancy between formal and actual federalism: Mexico

15. Limitations on Government Power Constitutional regimes Civil rights protected Courts are crucial to the limitations on governmental power. Judicial review Lijphart characterizes only four of the 36 democratic systems he examines as having “strong” judicial review. Often in constitution but harder to implement in practice Amending procedures Vary widely

17. Checking the Top Policymakers Challenge: control the excesses of the top political leaders Authoritarian systems: problematic Democracies: procedures vary between types of systems Parliamentary system: removed virtually at any time Presidential system: impeachment Associated with constitutions having powerful presidencies with fixed terms of office Ultimate control of democratic order is periodic and competitive elections.

18. Assemblies Almost all contemporary political systems have assemblies. More than 80% of the countries belonging to the U.N. Vary in structure; bicameralism is common Differ in their internal organization All have a committee structure

19. Assembly Functions Deliberate, debate, and vote on policies that come before them. Typically also control public spending decisions Some have important appointment powers. Some may serve as a court of appeals. Range in terms of their role as policymaking agencies: U.S. - highly active role; National People’s Congress of the People’s Republic of China, rubberstamp function Assemblies should not be viewed only as legislative bodies.

20. Representation: Mirroring and Representational Biases Descriptive representation/mirroring For politicians to be good agents, they need to have similar preferences to the citizens they represent and they need the appropriate skills to do the job. Democracies- role of parties for preference alignment Mirroring versus expert delegation Most of the time that elected members of legislative assemblies hardly ever mirror the citizens they represent on standard social characteristics. Working class Advancement of women- visible but uneven Age

21. Political Executives In modern states, the executive branch is by far the largest, the most complex, and typically the most powerful branch of government. Chief executives Single or split Divided between effective power over policy, purely ceremonial roles or both Presidents and Prime Ministers Chairman of the Communist Party in China Monarchs Advantages the split system

23. Recruitment of Chief Executives Recruitment structures Competitive party systems Noncompetitive parties and military organizations Authoritarian systems rarely have effective procedures for leadership succession. Poorer nations show substantially less stability and the regimes have usually had less experience at surviving succession crises. African nations: repeated coups

25. The Cabinet In many political systems, the Cabinet is the most important collective decision-making body. Very powerful in parliamentary systems Selection Presidential systems: presidential prerogative with legislative approval; President can dismiss Cabinet members; legislature severely limited in this area Parliamentary systems: formation depends on the result of parliamentary elections and on the composition of Parliament Majority single-party cabinet Coalition cabinet

27. Functions of the Chief Executive Typically the most important structure in policymaking The executive normally initiates new policies. May have role in adoption Typically has veto powers Oversees policy implementation Recruitment function Conduct affects trust and confidence in the political system Central role in communication, in explaining and building support for new policies Improving the performance in various sectors of society and economy

29. The Bureaucracy Large organizations in charge of implementing public policy Size has increased Civil service Functions Almost alone in implementing and enforcing laws and regulations May articulate and aggregate interests Adjudication Involved in communication

30. Bureaucracy and Performance Weber: features of bureaucracies Decision making is based on fixed and official jurisdictions, rules and regulations; There are formal and specialized educational or training requirements for each position; There is a hierarchical command structure: a firmly ordered system of super- and subordination, in which information flows upward and decisions downward; Decisions are made on the basis of SOPs, which include extensive written records; and Officials hold career positions, are appointed and promoted on the basis of merit, and have protection against political interference, notably in the form of permanent job tenure.

31. Bureaucracy and Performance Positive features Liabilities Control of bureaucracies in democratic countries External government control: political executive Centralized budgeting and administrative reorganization are other means of executive control. Nomenklatura Assemblies and courts Hearings or judicial investigations Ombudsman Limited control in authoritarian systems Corruption/failure of rule of law