1. Incubation Effects - Why Do They Occur? Then: Analogical Reasoning Psychology 355: Cognitive Psychology Instructor: John Miyamoto 5/25/2016: Lecture 09-3 Note: This Powerpoint presentation may contain macros that I wrote to help me create the slides. The macros aren’t needed to view the slides. You can disable or delete the macros without any change to the presentation.

2. Outline Incubation Effects Analogical Reasoning FYI: After the lecture on 5/25/2016, I reorganized the slides on the incubation effect to make them more clear. I did not change the content of what was in the slides. This presentation contains the reorganized version of the slides. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr ‘16 2 Lecture probably ends within this topic Temporal Pattern of Incubation Effects

3. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16 3 Incubation Effects Incubation effect – discovery of problem solution after a period during which one does not think about the problem. Temporal pattern of an incubation effect. Same Slide without the Emphasis Comment Bubbles Problem solver spends some time doing something completely different. Problem solver initially works unsuccessfully on a problem. Problem solver has sudden insight; solves the problem.. TIME

4. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16 4 Incubation Effects Incubation effect – discovery of problem solution after a period during which one does not think about the problem. Temporal pattern of an incubation effect. Incubation Effects on the Cheap Necklace Problem – Silveira's (1971) Study Problem solver spends some time doing something completely different. Problem solver initially works unsuccessfully on a problem. Problem solver has sudden insight; solves the problem.. TIME

5. Preceding slide presents the subjective impression that is reported by many problem solvers. Is it real, or some kind of illusion? Control Group: Worked on problem for 30 minutes. Exp Group 1: Work on problem for 15 minutes. Perform other activities for 30 minutes. Return to problem for 15 minutes. Exp Group 2: Work on problem for 15 minutes. Perform other activities for 4 hours. Return to problem for 15 minutes. Exp Group 2 85% solve the Circle Problem Exp Group 1 64% solve the Circle Problem Study of Incubation Effects on the Cheap Necklace Problem (Silveira, 1971) Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16 5 Conclusions re Incubation & Cheap Necklace Problem Control Group 55% solve the Circle Problem

6. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16 6 Conclusions re Incubation Effects on the Cheap Necklace Problem (Silveira, 1971) Conclusion 1: Incubation can be very beneficial. Conclusion 2: Protocol analysis suggested that people don't work on the problem unconsciously while thinking about something else. o After incubation period, subjects returned to the problem at the same stage at which they had stopped, but they make more progress from that stage. Why do incubation effects occur? Why is it helpful to stop working on a problem for awhile? Why is Incubation Helpful?

7. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16 7 Why Is Incubation Helpful for Problem Solving? One benefit of incubation comes from forgetting inappropriate strategies or problem representations, i.e., a break down of an unhelpful set. ♦ Incubation weakens adverse priming of an ineffective problem solving strategy, thereby making it easier to activate alternative problem solving strategies. Same Slide - Emphasis on Left Panel

8. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16 8 Why Is Incubation Helpful for Problem Solving? One benefit of incubation comes from forgetting inappropriate strategies or problem representations, i.e., a break down of an unhelpful set. ♦ Incubation weakens adverse priming of an ineffective problem solving strategy, thereby making it easier to activate alternative problem solving strategies. Same Slide - Emphasis on Middle Panel Strength Strategy 1 Strength Strategy 2 Activation Strength While Thinking About Strategy 1 Strategy 1 Strength Strategy 2 Activation Strength After Incubation Strategy 1 Strength Strategy 2 Activation Strength While Thinking About Strategy 1

9. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16 9 Why Is Incubation Helpful for Problem Solving? One benefit of incubation comes from forgetting inappropriate strategies or problem representations, i.e., a break down of an unhelpful set. ♦ Incubation weakens adverse priming of an ineffective problem solving strategy, thereby making it easier to activate alternative problem solving strategies. Same Slide - Emphasis on Right Panel Strength Strategy 1 Strength Strategy 2 Activation Strength While Thinking About Strategy 1 Strategy 1 Strength Strategy 2 Activation Strength After Incubation Strategy 1 Strength Strategy 2 Activation Strength While Thinking About Strategy 1

10. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16 10 Why Is Incubation Helpful for Problem Solving? One benefit of incubation comes from forgetting inappropriate strategies or problem representations, i.e., a break down of an unhelpful set. ♦ Incubation weakens adverse priming of an ineffective problem solving strategy, thereby making it easier to activate alternative problem solving strategies. Exposure to Helpful Hints – Kaplan's Study Strength Strategy 1 Strength Strategy 2 Activation Strength While Thinking About Strategy 1 Strategy 1 Strength Strategy 2 Activation Strength After Incubation Strategy 1 Strength Strategy 2 Activation Strength While Thinking About Strategy 2

11. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16 11 Why Is Incubation Helpful for Problem Solving? One benefit of incubation comes from forgetting inappropriate strategies or problem representations, i.e., a break down of an unhelpful set. ♦ Incubation weakens adverse priming of an ineffective problem solving strategy, thereby making it easier to activate alternative problem solving strategies. Another benefit comes from consolidation of the memory of problem structure. ♦ Analogous to the effects of spaced practice on recall from LTM. Another benefit comes from sleep and dreaming ( not yet known how this benefit occurs ). Another benefit of incubation: Exposure to helpful hints (next slide) Exposure to Helpful Hints – Kaplan's Study

12. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16 12 Exposure to Helpful Hints Can Help to Solve a Problem Kaplan (1989) dissertation experiment. Subjects were given a list of insight problems. Sample Problem: On this hill there was a green house. And inside the green house there was a white house. And inside the white house, there was a red house. And inside the red house there were a lot of little blacks and whites sitting there. What place is this? Subjects worked on the problems over many days. Subjects were given pagers, a small microphone and tape recorder. Periodically, subjects were beeped – they had to describe their progress on the problems. Effect of Helpful Hints

13. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16 13 Exposure to Helpful Hints Can Help to Solve a Problem Sample Problem: On this hill there was a green house. And inside the green house there was a white house. And inside the white house, there was a red house. And inside the red house there were a lot of little blacks and whites sitting there. What place is this? Every so often, Kaplan would put up a hint for a problem in the form of graffitti. For example, something like this image was posted in the men’s bathroom in the psychology department. Finding: Subjects would suddenly discover solutions to problems shortly after the posting of hints without being aware that they had been given a hint. Summary re Incubation Effects

14. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16 14 Summary re Incubation Effects Incubation effect – discovery of problem solution after spending time thinking about something else. Incubation can be beneficial. ♦ One benefit of incubation comes from forgetting of inappropriate strategies or problem representations, i.e., a break down of an unhelpful set. ♦ Another benefit of incubation: Exposure to helpful hints – even accidental hints provided by daily experience. ♦ Other benefits of incubation: ○ Consolidation of problem structure. ○ Sleep and dreaming contributes to problem solving. Summary – Obstacles to Problem Solving

15. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16 15 Summary: Obstacles to Problem Solving Misleading or uninformative problem representation. Recommendation: Look for alternative problem representations. Adopting unnecessary assumptions (false constraints). Recommendation: Check your assumptions. Are they really necessary? Inappropriate Set: Recommendation: If you are stuck on a problem, look for alternative strategies. General Advice: Incubation can be helpful. Recommendation : Get away from the problem, then return to it. Sleep on it (problems can be solved after sleeping on it). START: Analogical Reasoning

16. Outline of the Analogical Reasoning Topic Analogical Reasoning – What helps or hinders the discovery of useful analogies? Examples of analogies Structural definition of an analogy Studies of the discovery of analogies What are the cognitive processes during discovery of useful analogies? Experiments on analogies that influence decisions Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16 16 Lecture probably ends here Examples of Analogical Reasoning

17. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16 17 Examples of Analogical Reasoning Is the current international political instability analogous to the political situation that preceded World War I? Is a successful business enterprise analogous to a successful football team? Is the mutilated checkerboard problem analogous to the Russian marriage problem? Is the structure of an atom analogous to the structure of the solar system? "pony" is to "horse" as ____ is to "cow" "plane" is to "air" as "boat" is to ____ Why Are We Interested in Analogical Reasoning?

18. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16 18 Why Are We Interested In Analogical Reasoning? Seeing useful analogies is one of the basic mechanisms of problem solving. Analogies influence decisions. ♦ Is the current instability in Ukraine analogous to the German annexation of Austria in 1938? ♦ Maureen Dowd writing in the New York Times (January 17, 2010) about President Obama’s reluctance to support gay marriage: “Obama sees himself as such a huge change that he can be cautious about other societal changes. But what he doesn’t realize is that legalizing gay marriage is like electing a black president. Before you do it, it seems inconceivable. Once it’s done, you can’t remember what all the fuss was about.” [Italics added to the quotation] Structure of an Analogy

19. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16 19 The Structure of an Analogy Source (Base Problem): Typically, a well understood problem or system to which an analogy is made. ♦ E.g., structure of the solar system Example: The structure of an atom is analogous to the structure of the solar system. Target (Test Problem): Typically, a less understood problem or system about which we can learn by analogy to the source. E.g., structure of the atom Representation: A description of the structure of the source and the target. Main Steps in the Mental Construction of an Analogy Source Target Atom Solar System

20. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16 20 Main Steps in the Mental Construction of an Analogy Create representations of the source and target. Noticing: Noticing that a potential analogy exists. Mapping: Constructing a correspondence between the representations of the source and the target. Application: Applying the mapping from source to target, i.e., drawing inferences about the target based on what is known about the source. Dunker’s Radiation Problem - Outline

21. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16 21 Dunker's Radiation Problem - Outline Doctor must kill a tumor in a patient's stomach. Surgery is not possible. There is a ray that can kill the tumor. In high dosages it will kill the tumor, but it will also kill healthy tissue in front of the tumor. In low dosages, it won't harm the healthy tissue, but it also won't kill the tumor. Question: How can the doctor kill the tumor without killing the healthy tissue? The Convergence Solution

22. Convergence Solution for the Radiation Problem Beam the ray at the tumor from many different angles. All rays should have low intensity, but the combination of rays at point of intersection (at the tumor) will have high intensity. ---------------------------------- The convergence solution respects the constraint that the ray cannot be high intensity. Gick & Holyoak (1983): With no other hints, about 10% of subjects (University of Michigan undergrads) produced the convergence solution. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16 22 Analogical Transfer

23. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16 23 Analogical Transfer Analogical transfer – seeing analogies and using the analogies to solve a new problem. Gick and Holyoak studied whether exposure to analogous problems and their solutions would help people solve the radiation problem. ♦ Train subjects on one problem. (Referred to as the "base problem.") ♦ Test subjects on another problem that is analogous to the first problem. (Referred to as the "target" or "test" problem.) Gick & Holyoak on Analogical Transfer – Basic Idea

24. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16 24 Gick & Holyoak's Study of Analogical Transfer Step 1: Train subjects to solve (or at least think about) one or more base problems (source for an analogy). Step 2: Subjects are asked to solve the Radiation Problem (target problem). Compare the following two measures: ♦ How many subjects (%) solve the target problem without seeing the base problem first? ♦ How many subjects (%) solve the target problem after seeing the base problem? Base Problem: The Fortress Problem

25. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16 25 Base Problem: Duncker's Fortress Problem A general needs to capture a fortress with his army. An attack by his entire army would capture the fortress, but the roads are mined. Since the dictator needs to move his workers to and from the fortress, the mines are set to let small bodies of men pass over them safely, Any large force would detonate the mines. How can the general attack the fortress with all of his army? Other Base Problems – Red Adair & Arrow Diagram

26. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16 26 Other Base Problems Red Adair Problem: (Red Adair was famous for being able to put out burning oil wells) ♦ Need to put out a burning oil well but can't deliver enough water from any one position. ♦ Convergence Solution: Direct streams of water at the well from many directions. Arrow Diagram: In some conditions, subjects were given an arrow diagram to see if that would be helpful. Three Conditions in the Experiment on Analogical Transfer

27. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16 27 Gick & Holyoak: Study of Analogical Transfer Base Problem:The Fortress Problem Target Problem:The Radiation Problem Three Experimental Conditions 1.Subjects are not shown the base problem. Subject attempt to solve the target problem. ♦ This condition tests for the rate of spontaneous solutions to the target problem. Same Slide with Condition 2 Added

28. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16 28 Gick & Holyoak: Study of Analogical Transfer Base Problem:The Fortress Problem Target Problem:The Radiation Problem Three Experimental Conditions 1.Subjects are not shown the base problem. Subject attempt to solve the target problem. 2.Subjects are shown the base problem. Subject attempt to solve the target problem. ♦ This condition tests for the rate of spontaneous use of the analogy of the base problem when attempting to solve the target problem. Same Slide with Condition 3 Added

29. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16 29 Gick & Holyoak: Study of Analogical Transfer Base Problem:The Fortress Problem Target Problem:The Radiation Problem Three Experimental Conditions 1.Subjects are not shown the base problem. Subject attempt to solve the target problem. 2.Subjects are shown the base problem. Subject attempt to solve the target problem. 3.Subjects are shown the base problem plus a hint that the base problem may be useful when working on the next problem.. Subject attempt to solve the target problem. ♦ This condition tests for the rate of using the analogy when the subjects are informed that it may be useful. Results of Gick & Holyoak's Study

30. Summary of Results (Gick & Holyoak, 1980, 1983) Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16 30 These results show that noticing the analogy is a separate step from constructing the analogy. (Condition 3 is better than Condition 2.) Same Slide with Emphasis Rectangles % SolutionsThree Conditions 10%1. Control: No base problem, no hint 30%2. Base problem, no hint 75%3. Base problem + hint

31. Summary of Results (Gick & Holyoak, 1980, 1983) Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16 31 These results show that noticing the analogy is a separate step from constructing the analogy. (Condition 3 is much better than Condition 2.) Noticing Analogies: Effects of Superficial Similarities % SolutionsThree Conditions 10%1. Control: No base problem, no hint 30%2. Base problem, no hint 75%3. Base problem + hint

32. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16 32 Noticing Analogies: The Effects of Superficial Similarities How to increase the rate at which people notice an analogy? Hypothesis: People are more likely to notice an analogy if the base and target problem share superficial features. ♦ Evidence for this is given by the Lightbulb Problem (next). Lightbulb Problem – Standard Version

33. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16 33 Effect of Superficial Features Lightbulb Problem (see Goldstein, pp. 352) Ruth must repair an expensive lightbulb. The filament is broken. A high intensity laser can repair the filament, but it will break the glass. Solution: Beam many low intensity lasers at the filament from many different directions. Holyoak & Koh (1987): Subjects who were only given the Lightbulb Problem solved it 10% of the time. Subjects who were first saw the Radiation Problem and its solution solved the Lightbulb Problem 81% of the time. ♦ Excellent transfer! Recall that the Fortress Problem transferred to the Radiation Problem 30% of the time. Comparing Effects of Superficial Features & Structural Features

34. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16 34 Effects of Superficial Features versus Structural Features Subjects first saw the Radiation Problem and its solution. They then tried to solve a version of the Lightbulb Problem. Lightbulb Problem (Fragile Glass Version) – shares both superficial & structural features with the Radiation Problem: Ruth must repair an expensive lightbulb. The filament is broken. A high intensity laser can repair the filament, but it will break the glass. (Same as scenario on preceding slide.) Lightbulb Problem (Insufficient Intensity Version) – shares superficial BUT NOT structural features with the Radiation Problem: Ruth must repair an expensive lightbulb. The filament is broken. A high intensity laser can repair the filament, but she doesn’t have one. She only has low intensity lasers available to her. Solution for both versions: Beam many low intensity lasers at the filament from many different directions. Results for Two Versions of the Lightbulb Problem

35. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16 35 Results: Superficial Features versus Structural Features Subjects first saw the Radiation Problem and its solution. They then tried to solve one version of the Lightbulb Problem. Lightbulb Problem (Fragile Glass Version) – shares both superficial & structural features with the Radiation Problem: Lightbulb Problem (Insufficient Intensity Version) – shares superficial BUT NOT structural features with the Radiation Problem: Results: % SolutionVersion 69%Fragile Glass Version 33%Insufficient Intensity Version Comparison of Features for Different Problems Superficial Similarities + Structural Similarities Analogical Transfer

36. 36 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16 Wednesday, May 25, 2016 : The Lecture Ended Here

37. Comparison of Features Among the Problems Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16 37 Superficial FeatureStructural Feature Problem Medium of Action Why One Strong Beam/Attack Not Possible Analogical Transfer Successful? Radiation ProblemX-ray beam One strong x-ray beam will injure the intervening tissue. Radiation problem is the source problem Fortress Problem Attack by troops One strong attacking army will detonate mines on roads. poor Lightbulb Problem (Insufficient Intensity Version) Laser beam High intensity laser not available poor Lightbulb Problem (Fragile Glass Version) Laser beam High intensity laser will break the glass. good Same Slide with Emphasis Rectangles

38. Superficial FeatureStructural Feature Problem Medium of Action Why One Strong Beam/Line of Attack Not Possible Analogical Transfer Successful? Radiation ProblemX-ray beam One strong x-ray beam will injure the intervening tissue. Radiation problem is the source problem Fortress Problem Attack by troops One strong attacking army will detonate mines on roads. poor Lightbulb Problem (Insufficient Intensity Version) Laser beam High intensity laser not available poor Lightbulb Problem (Fragile Glass Version) Laser beam High intensity laser will break the glass. good Comparison of Features Among the Problems Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16 38 What Influences the Likelihood of Analogical Transfer?