1. 0 Lebanon Key characteristics: About 4 million people and one of the smallest non-island nations in the world Population is extremely diverse and divided between several large religious groups (40% Christian, 35% Shi’a Muslim, 20% Sunni Muslim, 5% Druze) Large Lebanese diaspora abroad (10 million) concentrated in the Americas and Europe Historically one of the strongest economies in the Middle East, with a highly skilled population

2. 1 Geography and resources Mostly mountainous, with a small coastal plain and the Beqa’a valley Fertile land but densely populated Few natural resources led Lebanon to specialize in service industries such as finance, trade, and tourism Mount Lebanon is largely Christian and Druze, the North is Sunni, the South and Beqa’a are Shi’i with a mix in Beirut About ½ million Palestinian refugees live primarily in the South

3. 2 Foundations of the Lebanese state French period Independent government After being ruled by the Ottoman empire, the French ruled Lebanon from 1920-1945 Lebanon was carved out of Syria as a separate state in 1926, designed to be dominated by Christians Built a power-sharing government based in the 1932 census Beirut became the Paris of the Middle East by the 1960s, both culturally and economically Pressures from Palestinian refugees (1948, 1967) Political crisis in 1958 led to American intervention Prosperity and challenges The National Pact (1943) determined government structure and set up a confessional system The parties agreed that Lebanon would be an independent, Arab state President would be a Christian, Prime Minister a Sunni, Speaker of the Assembly, a Shi’i Muslim Parliament would have 6:5 ratio of Christians to Muslims

4. 3 The beginning of the Lebanese civil war (1975) The Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) moved to Lebanon in 1970 to launch guerilla attacks on Israel The Sunni and Druze allied with the PLO, but the Christians and Shi’a resented their presence The Druze, Sunnis, and Christians began arming militias, which led to clashes in 1975 Random firing on a Christian church led to Christian revenge by massacring 27 Palestinian civilians on a bus In December 1975 Christian roadblocks checking religious id were targeted leading to 600 deaths (Black Saturday) and civil war Yasir Arafat, Chairman of the PLO Total civil war deaths: 200,000

5. 4 The principal domestic combatants Christian militias (Phalange) PLO Dominated by Maronite Christians Held a right-wing and sometimes fascist world view Controlled much of Mount Lebanon, East Beirut, and government buildings Looked for Israeli, Western, and Syrian support Small group caught in a security dilemma in a strategic area Largely fought Christian militias Druze Led by Arafat and controlled much of Southern Lebanon Received some support from small Sunni militias Initially wanted to stay out of domestic Lebanese disputes, but was dragged in by splits and attacks on Palestinians Initially sympathetic to the PLO, but began to resent them Late entrants to the civil war Led by two new militias (Amal and Hezbollah) Shi’i militias

6. 5 Phases of the Lebanese civil war Sectarian massacres Operation Litani Siege of Beirut New sectarianism 1984-1989 1982-1983 1977-1982 1975-1977

7. 6 Phases of the Lebanese civil war Sectarian massacres Civilian massacres lead to internal displacement on sectarian lines Beirut becomes divided between East and West sides Non-sectarian militias fade and sectarian ones grow stronger The Christians and the PLO become enemies As Maronites weaken, they received support from Israel and then Syria Syria brought in 40,000 troops to ensure a temporary peace Phase 1 1975-1977

8. 7 Phases of the Lebanese civil war Operation Litani 1978-1982 PLO hijacking of two Israeli passenger buses triggers Israeli invasion of Southern Lebanon UN calls for immediate withdrawal and Israel withdraws to control a 12- mile security zone Israel installs a Christian-Shi’a militia (South Lebanese Army) to serve as a buffer Syria shifts support away from the Maronites toward the Palestinians Israel tries to get the Maronite president (Gemayel) to sign a peace deal with Israel Phase 2

9. 8 Phases of the Lebanese civil war Siege of Beirut 1982-1983 Israel invades Lebanon, pushing all the way to Beirut Israel lays siege to the city in an attempt to destroy the PLO The PLO are forced to flee and are evacuated by international forces who stay on in a multinational force 20,000 killed in the siege, mainly civilians President Gemayel, Israel’s ally, is assassinated Phalangist militias massacre Palestinian refugees (Sabra and Shatila) US Embassy is bombed by a newly-formed Hezbollah Shi’ite militia Phase 3

10. 9 Phases of the Lebanese civil war New sectarianism Phase 4: 1984-1989 Attacks on the multi-national force cause it to withdraw from Lebanon An Israeli withdrawal to South Lebanon triggers new Christian-Druze fighting in the Chouf mountains New Shi’a militias (Amal and Hezbollah) become major participants Palestinians and Druze ally against the Shi’a and Syria Iraq supports the Christians to fight the Shi’a as a proxy in the Iran-Iraq war Two separate Lebanese governments are formed (one Muslim, one Christian)

11. 10 Major external interventions Intervener Period Reason Outcome Israel 1978 1982-83 1978-2000 Clear the PLO from Southern Lebanon Remove the PLO from Lebanon; Install puppet government Control Lebanese buffer zone for border security Major internal displacement; PLO moves to Beirut Siege of Beirut results in many casualties; PLO moves to Tunis Israel-supported; Gemayel is killed Hezbollah guerrilla war on Israel MNF 1982-1984 Evacuate the PLO; Stabilize the Lebanese Government Fought by Shi’a and Druze Bombed and withdrew

12. 11 Major external interventions Intervener Period Reason Outcome Syria 1976 1981-84 1989-2005 Save the Christian government Repel Christian attacks and Israeli withdrawal Ensure Lebanese stability and implement the Taif accord Cease-fire and strong Syrian military presence Limited Syrian withdrawal Aoun rebellion (crushed by Syria); Syrian dominance over Lebanese politics Iraq 1988-90 Proxy war against the Shi’a Shi’a militias become stronger Iran 1979-present Support Lebanese Shi’a Iran training and funding of Shi’a militias

13. 12 The growth of Shi’i militias Shi’i militias grew in strength after the Israeli invasion of 1982 Amal was the first to represent the Shi’a community Hezbollah split from Amal to pursue a more Islamist ideology and a more radical policy Funded and trained by Iran Took hostages and responsible for the attacks on the MNF in 1983 Thrived fighting the Israelis in the Southern buffer zone Became mini-states (with social services and political wings) in the South and the Beqa’a valley Hezbollah’s militia

14. 13 Multiple sovereignty and the Aoun government President Amin Gemayel appointed a Christian, Michel Aoun (leader of the Lebanese army), as Prime Minister in 1988 This contravened the National Pact, which ensured the PM would be a Sunni Muslim, so the existing PM, Salim al-Hoss, did not step down Aoun led a rebellion against the Syrians and rejected proposed compromises in the Taif accord Syria eventually crushed the rebellion in 1990 Michel Aoun

15. 14 The Taif Accords Signed by surviving members of the 1972 Lebanese parliament in Taif, Saudi Arabia Continued the confessional system, with some modifications: –Gave more power to the Prime Minister –Parliament to be divided equally between Christians and Muslims –Cabinet divided equally between Christians and Muslims Syria would be used to implement the accord, leaving a Syrian military presence in Lebanon Designed to put this back together

16. 15 Lebanon today Period of growth and stability in the 1990s, followed by a resumption of tensions Key political challenges: –Independence from Syrian influence (Syria withdrew in 2005) –Control of independent militias (especially Hezbollah) –Recovery from Israeli invasion and air strikes (2006) –Assassinations of prominent individuals (Rafik Hariri 2005) –Deeply divided government –Large-scale protest and political mobilization –Sectarian spill over from Syria Could Lebanon relapse into civil war? One of the most highly politicized countries in the world

17. 16 Areas bombed by Israel and by Hezbollah in 2006