1. Chapter 2 Developmental Risk Factors

2. Developmental Perspective All humans follow developmental pathways Risk factors and protective factors Early identification of factors, particularly risk factors, important

3. Social Risk Factors Poverty and social class robust predictor of adolescent offending – Caveat: all classes commit delinquency – Caveat: law enforcement may target lower socioeconomic class Poverty also predicts victimization Numerous factors associated (e.g., isolation, unsafe living conditions, stress, unemployment) Peer rejection and association with antisocial peers Early peer rejection often leads to adolescent delinquency Combination of child’s aggressive behavior and peer rejection strong predictor Disruptive child angers easily, few interpersonal skills Antisocial peers: deviant youth seek deviant friends Nondeviant youth, associating with deviant friends, minor delinquency Aggressive, rejected juveniles associate with similar juveniles

4. Preschool experiences Some researchers say aggressive children identified as early as 3 years of age – 63% of children are in day care – Quality of daycare has been reported to put children at developmental risk – Low income children that experience high quality daycare show better school achievement and social behavior – Poor quality daycare has been reported to put children at developmental risk for Language development Cognitive development Lower social and emotional adjustment Early school failure – Anti-social behavior in 8 year-olds males who were failing in school was double those of other male children – High reading achievement seems to prevent at-risk youth from engaging in later anti-social behaviors Reading achievement creates greater acceptance in peer groups, greater attachment to school, better job prospects and higher cognitive resources for problem solving Unsupervised after school care – Latch key kids are more likely to spend time in unsupervised activities with peers Creates greater risk of anti-social peers

5. Parental and family problems Family Structure Single parent, but other factors critical Conflict-free single parent home better than conflict- laden two-parent home One point is indisputably clear in literature: – A stable, secure, and mutually supporting family is exceedingly important in delinquency prevention Process rather than structure: parental styles and practices Baumrind’s three styles: authoritarian, permissive, authoritative Snyder and Patterson: enmeshed and lax styles Importance of parental monitoring Inconsistent and/or harsh discipline problematic

6. Psychological Risk Factors Cognitive and language deficiencies Language impairment – Poor language development in the second year of life was a significant predictor of adult criminal behavior – Language impaired children are often rejected by their peers and – Frequently viewed negatively by their teachers Intelligence and delinquency – Delinquents do, as a group, score lower on standardized intelligence tests Inverse relationship—many explanations – Tests may be culturally biased

7. Psychometric approach; psychometric intelligence= cognitive ability PI (psychometric intelligence) not same as “intelligence” Group differences reflect cultural, social influences Very low PI scores: some association with delinquency and adult offending IQ and ethnicity IQ and adult offenders – 4% of U.S. prison populations are mentally disabled Jails believed to hold even higher percentages – Conduct disorder predictive of adult anti-social behavior in both mentally deficient male and female groups

8. Intelligence Quotient IQ scores reflect general capacity for performing intellectual tasks, such as solving verbal and mathematical problems. The average IQ score is 100. The standard deviation of IQ scores is 15. So, this means: 50% of people have IQ scores between 90 and 110 2.5% of people are very superior in intelligence (over 130) 2.5% of people are mentally deficient / impaired / retarded (under 70) 0.5% of people are near genius or genius (over 140)

9. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) Self-regulation – Evidence indicates that the that the key systematic features of hyperactivity persist into adulthood – Manifested in: Inattention Impulsivity Excessive motor activity – Researchers estimate that about one-fourth of all children with ADHD engage in serious anti-social behavior during childhood and adolescence And criminal behavior as an adult. – Experts generally agree that the most common problem associated with ADHD is delinquency and substance abuse Youths with symptoms of ADHD and antisocial behavior are at great risk of developing lengthy and serious criminal careers.

10. Conduct Disorder Repetitive, persistent misbehavior – Stealing, fire setting, running away, truancy, fighting, frequently telling lies, cruelty to animals May be apparent as early as age 3 Distinct from learning disability – Children that lack interpersonal skills may be forced to get their needs met more aggressive means: Threats and intimidation Childhood-onset and adolescent-onset – If CD pattern begins before age 10, the prognosis is not good – Favorable pattern for adolescent-onset Significant school problems – 2-6% of children and adolescents show patterns of behavior consistent with the disorder Prevalence in girls 4-9.2 percent

11. Gender Differences in Development of Delinquency Males outnumber females, particularly in violent offending Gender gap closing for some offenses (embezzlement, prostitution, runaways) Reflects socialization effects Processing still harsher for girls for runaway, shoplifting – 92% of juvenile female offenders reported that they had been subjected to some form of emotional, physical, and/or sexual abuse. 25% reported that they had been shot or stabbed one or more times.

12. Developmental Theories of Delinquency Moffitt’s Developmental Theory Life course persistent (LCP) offenders Early childhood problems: – neurological, interpersonal, antisocial Rejected in school setting Parents, teachers, caregivers become frustrated and give up Anti-social youth progressively affiliate with similarly anti-social peers Continue into adulthood – “If social and academic skills are not mastered in childhood, it is very difficult to later recover lost opportunties Adolescent limited (AL) offenders Onset in adolescent; stop early During teen years, frequency and even violence level may be same as LCP Some research on gender differences – May be that adulthood in contemporary society may begin after the age of 25

13. Coercion Developmental Theory (Patterson) Role of parenting is critical – Poor parental monitoring, disruptive family transitions, inconsistent parental discipline Some children elicit ineffective strategies (e.g., difficult temperament) – Temper tantrums and whining to get way Two developmental trajectories, early and late onset Gender differences explained by environmental experiences, reinforcements Peer association

14. Eysenck’s Theory of Personality and Crime Eysenck believed that criminal behavior is a result of an interaction between environmental conditions and features of the nervous system – Theories that rely on social and biological definitions are inadequate – Different personalities are more susceptible to crime Theory places heavy emphasis genetic predispositions toward anti-social and criminal conduct – Some people are born with nervous system characteristics that affect their ability to conform to normative behavior – Nervous system features predispose some to be more likely to engage in crime Reactivity Sensitivity Excitability

15. Eysenck’s Theory of Personality and Crime Interaction between environment and individual nervous system Emphasis on genetic predispositions Extraversion Neuroticism Psychoticism Ambiversion Measurement of Eysenck’s theory

16. Eysenck’s Theory of Personality and Crime “We may conclude that intelligence is a factor in the causation of criminality but that its contribution is probably smaller than one might have thought at first.” 16% of the population are extraverts 16% are introverts 68% are ambiverts Eysenck’s maintained that people at the extraversion end of the dimension require high levels of stimulation from the environment because of their biological make-up. The extraverts reticular activating system does not seem to generate cortical excitation or arousal effectively Extraverts sensation seeking behavior is presumably more likely to put them at conflict with the law

17. Eysenck’s Theory of Personality and Crime Extraversion Behavioral characteristics and incidence Physiological bases of extraversion-introversion Importance of the RAS Extravert’s RAS does not generate arousal effectively Introvert’s RAS amplifies stimulation input Effects of alcohol on cortical arousal Neuroticism Neurophysiological bases of neuroticism-stability Intense and lasting reaction to stress

18. Eysenck’s Theory of Personality and Crime Psychoticism High testosterone; low monoamine oxidase and serotonin Similar to primary psychopathy Cold cruelty, insensitivity, disregard for danger, dislike of others

20. Eysenck’s Theory of Personality and Crime Neuroticism – Biological predisposition to react to psychologically to stressful events (intensity of emotional reactions) – Persons reacts intensely and emotionally to stress Can be moody and anxious when under stimulated – Neurotics are believed to have unusually sensitive limbic systems They achieve emotionality quicker and for longer periods of time Their parasympathetic system is slow to counterbalance the sympathetic system – Persons high on the emotionality scale are more likely to engage in crime

22. Eysenck’s Theory of Personality and Crime Psychoticism – High levels of male hormone testosterone combined with low levels of enzyme monoamine oxidase and serotonin play a major role – Psychoticism is characterized by cold cruelty, social insensitivity, unemotionality, and disregard for danger. – Will be especially prominent in hard-core, habitual offenders convicted of crimes of violence

23. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS