1. Virtual Memory Layout Operating System Reserved.data Break (Heap).text.bss StackStack 0 FFFFFFFF

2. How The Sections Work.text.data Instruction1 Instruction2 OpCode Operand1 Operand2 ADD 01010101 11110000 a = 1 b = 1 a + b 00000001 Variable a @(01010101) Variable b @ (11110000) Code

3. Indirection.text.data Instruction1 Instruction2 OpCode Operand1 Operand2 ADD 11110011 11111111 a = 1 b = 1 c* = &a d* = &b c* + d* 00000001 Variable a @(01010101) Variable b @ (11110000) Code 01010101Variable c @ (11110011) 11110000Variable d @ (11111111) IndirectIndirect

4. Example A “C” “Array” myArray = array() i = 1 myArray[i] = 0 00000001 i @(01010101) myArray @ (11110000) Code myArray[i] == myArray[1] == myArray + 1 @ (11110001) 00000000 Index value (indirection)

5. Back To Memory a = 0 p* =&a 11110001 Whole_Memory_Array Pointer p @(01010101) Code a =Actual pointed variable = Whole_Memory_Array[p]@ (11110001) 00000000 Pointer value (indirection)

6. Intro To Binary Switch = Bit 8 Switches = 8 Bits = Byte 1 = On 0 = Off We can have only 0 or 1 Is there any way to get real numbers?

7. Lets Take an Example From Regular (Decimal) Numbers 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ????? We have only 9 numerals So how do we proceed?

8. Lets Take an Example From Regular (Decimal) Numbers 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ????? The answer is combination 10 11 12 … 20 21 …. 30 …. 99 ????? 100 101 …. 200 …..

9. Back To Binary 0 1 ??? The answer is combination 10 11 ????? 100 101 110 111 ?????? 1000 1001 1010 1100 1101 1110 1111 ??????

10. Binary Compared To Decimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 …… 00000000 00000001 00000010 00000011 00000100 00000101 00000110 00000111 00001000 00001001 …….. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 10 11 …… Decimal Binary Octal

11. Negative Numbers Rule 1: Negative has a 1 in front Ex: 100000001 Rule 2: The 2’s complement 1.The 1’s Complement – Xor all bits Ex: 000000001 - (Decimal “1”) Xor: 111111110 2.The 2’s Complement – Add 1 Ex: 000000001 - (Decimal “1”) Xor: 111111110 Add 1: 111111110 - (Decimal “-1”)

12. Converting Between Smaller And Larger Types byte a = 1 short b = a Code 00000001 0000000000000001 Correct unsigned byte a = 255 short b = a 11111111 0000000011111111 Correct byte a = -1 short b = a 11111111 0000000011111111 Wrong 11111111 1111111111111111 Correct Positive Values Negative Values

13. Identifiers Turned Into Memory Addresses 1.The identifiers that are being turned into memory addresses: – Global Variables – Functions – Labels 2.The identifiers that are NOT being turned into memory addresses, (are only used to measure the size to reserve): – Custom types – Struct – Class names 3.The identifiers that are used as offsets: – Array index – Class (and struct) field (NOT function) member – Local variables

14. Variables Size of the reserved memory is based on the type There might be the following types 1.Built-in type – which is just a group of bytes, based on the compiler and/or platform 2.Custom type – which is just a series of built in types 3.Array (in C and C++) – which is just a series of the same built-in type (but no one keeps track of the length, so it is the programmers job) 4.Pointer – system defined to hold memory addresses 5.Reference – a pointer without the possibility to access the memory address 6.Handle – a value supplied by the operating system (like the index of an array) 7.Typedef and Define – available in C and C++ to rename existing types Variables are a “higher language – human readable” name for a memory address

15. Labels There is no size associated with it Location – In assembly it might be everywhere In fact in assembly it is generally the only way to declare a variable, function, loop, or “else” In Dos batch it is the only way to declare a function – In C and C++ it might be only in a function – but is only recommended to break out of a nested loop – In VB it is used for error handling “On error goto” – In Java it might only be before a loop Labels are a “higher language – human readable” name for a memory address

16. Label Sample In Assembly.data.int var1: 1 var2: 10.text.global start: mov var1 %eax call myfunc jmp myfunc myfunc: mov var2 %ebx add %eax %ebx ret

17. Label Sample In Java (Or C) outerLabel: while(1==1) { while(2==2) { //Java syntax break outerLabel; //C syntax (not the same as before, as it will cause the loop again) goto outerLabel; }

18. Boolean Type False == 0 (all switches are of) True == 1 (switch is on, and also matches Boolean algebra) All other numbers are also considered true (as there are switches on) There are languages that require conversion between numbers and Boolean (and other are doing it behind the scenes)) However TWO languages are an exception

19. Why Some Languages Require conversion Consider the following C code, all of them are perfectly valid: if(1==1) //true if(1) //true as well if(a) //Checks if “a” is non-zero if(a==b) //Compares “a” to “b” if(a=b) //Sets “a” to the value of “b”, and then //checks “a” if it is non-zero, Is this by //intention or typo? However in Java the last statement would not compile, as it is not a Boolean operation For C there is some avoidance by having constants to the left, ie. if(20==a) Instead of if(a==20) Because if(20=a) Is a syntax error While if(a=20) Is perfectly valid

20. Implicit Conversion However some languages employ implicit conversion JavaScript considers –If (1) : true –If (0) : false –If (“”) : false –If (“0”) : true Php Considers If (“0”) : false If (array()) : false

21. Boolean In Visual Basic True in VB = -1 To see why let us see it in binary – 1 = 00000001 – 1’s complement = 1111111110 – 2’s complement = 1111111111 So all switches are on But why different than all others? To answer that we need to understand the difference between Logical and Bitwise operators, and why do Logical operators short circuit?

22. Logical vs bitwise Logical – Step 1 – Check the left side for true – Step 2 – If still no conclusion check the right side – Step 3 – Compare both sides and give the answer Bitwise – Step 1 – Translate both sides into binary – Step 2 – Compare both sides bit per bit – Step 3 – Provide the soltuion

23. Example Bitwise vs Logical Example 1 If 1==1 AND 2==2 Logical And Bitwise And Step 1: 1==1 is true 1==1 is true=00000001 Step 2: 2 ==2 is true 2==2 is true=00000001 Step 3: True 00000001 And True 00000001 = True 00000001

24. More Examples Example 2 If 1==2 AND 2==2 Logical And Bitwise And Step 1: 1==2 is false 1==2 is false=00000000 Step 2: return false 2==2 is true =00000001 Step 3: N/A 00000000 AND 00000001 00000000 Example 3 If 1 AND 2 Step 1: 1 is True 00000001 Step 2: 2 is True 00000010 Step 3: True 00000000

25. Bitwise vs Logical Operators OperatorCBasicVB.Net (Logical) Logical AND&&N/AAndAlso Logical OR||N/AOrElse Logical NOT!N/A (Bitwise) Bitwise AND&AND Bitwise OR|OR Bitwise XOR^XOR Bitwise NOT~NOT

26. Back To VB Since we have only a bitwise NOT we have to make sure it works on Boolean NOT On 1 1 = 00000001 = True NOT = 11111110 = True NOT On -1 -1 = 11111111 = True NOT = 00000000 = False Beware Of The Win32 API

27. Boolean In Bash Shell Scripting # if(true) then echo “works”; fi # works # # if(false) then echo “works”; fi # # if(test 1 –eq 1) then echo “works”; fi # works # # if(test 1 –eq 2) then echo “works”; fi # # echo test 1 –eq 1 # # test 1 –eq 1 # echo $? # 0 # test 1 –eq 2 # echo $? # 1 # # true # echo #? # 0 # false # echo #? # 1

28. Simple Function Call Stack Code Function func1() { func2(); } Function func2() { return; } Base Pointer Stack Pointer

29. Simple Function Call – Assembly Code Stack Code Function func1() { func2(); } Function func2() { //Some Code return; } Base Pointer Stack Pointer Assembly Code Func1: #label Jmp func2 Func2: #label Push BasePointer BasePointer = StackPointer #some code Pop BasePointer 9997 9995

30. Simple Function Call – Step 1 Stack Code Function func1() { func2(); } Function func2() { //Some Code return; } Base Pointer Stack Pointer Assembly Code Func1: #label Jmp func2 Func2: #label Push BasePointer BasePointer = StackPointer #some code Pop BasePointer 9997 9994 9997

31. Simple Function Call – Step 2 Stack Code Function func1() { func2(); } Function func2() { //Some Code return; } Base Pointer Stack Pointer Assembly Code Func1: #label Jmp func2 Func2: #label Push BasePointer BasePointer = StackPointer #some code Pop BasePointer 9997 9994

32. Simple Function Call – Step 3 Stack Code Function func1() { func2(); } Function func2() { //Some Code return; } Base Pointer Stack Pointer Assembly Code Func1: #label Jmp func2 Func2: #label Push BasePointer BasePointer = StackPointer #some code Pop BasePointer 9995 9997

33. Function Call Stack Code Function func1() { func2(5, 10); } Function func2(int x, int y) { int a; int[10] b; //Some code return; } Base Pointer Stack Pointer

34. Function Call – Assembly Code Stack Code Function func1() { func2(5, 10); } Function func2(int x, int y) { int a; int[10] b; //Some code return; } Base Pointer Stack Pointer Assembly Code Func1: #label Push 10 Push 5 Jmp func2 Func2: #label Push BasePointer BasePointer = StackPointer Sub 1 Sub 10 #some code Add 10 Add 1 Pop BasePointer 9997 9995

35. Function Call – Step 1 Stack Base Pointer Stack Pointer 9993 9997 Code Function func1() { func2(5, 10); } Function func2(int x, int y) { int a; int[10] b; //Some code return; } Assembly Code Func1: #label Push 10 Push 5 Jmp func2 Func2: #label Push BasePointer BasePointer = StackPointer Sub 1 Sub 10 #some code Add 10 Add 1 Pop BasePointer 10 5

36. Function Call – Step 2 Stack Base Pointer Stack Pointer 9992 9997 Code Function func1() { func2(5, 10); } Function func2(int x, int y) { int a; int[10] b; //Some code return; } Assembly Code Func1: #label Push 10 Push 5 Jmp func2 Func2: #label Push BasePointer BasePointer = StackPointer Sub 1 Sub 10 #some code Add 10 Add 1 Pop BasePointer 10 5 9997

37. Function Call – Step 3 Stack Base Pointer Stack Pointer 9992 Code Function func1() { func2(5, 10); } Function func2(int x, int y) { int a; int[10] b; //Some code return; } Assembly Code Func1: #label Push 10 Push 5 Jmp func2 Func2: #label Push BasePointer BasePointer = StackPointer Sub 1 Sub 10 #some code Add 10 Add 1 Pop BasePointer 10 5 9997

38. Function Call – Step 4 Stack Base Pointer Stack Pointer 9992 Code Function func1() { func2(5, 10); } Function func2(int x, int y) { int a; int[10] b; //Some code return; } Assembly Code Func1: #label Push 10 Push 5 Jmp func2 Func2: #label Push BasePointer BasePointer = StackPointer Sub 1 Sub 10 #some code Add 10 Add 1 Pop BasePointer 10 5 9997 9981

39. Function Call – Step 5 Stack Base Pointer Stack Pointer 9992 Code Function func1() { func2(5, 10); } Function func2(int x, int y) { int a; int[10] b; //Some code return; } Assembly Code Func1: #label Push 10 Push 5 Jmp func2 Func2: #label Push BasePointer BasePointer = StackPointer Sub 1 Sub 10 #some code Add 10 Add 1 Pop BasePointer 10 5 9997

40. Function Call – Step 6 Stack Base Pointer Stack Pointer 9993 9997 Code Function func1() { func2(5, 10); } Function func2(int x, int y) { int a; int[10] b; //Some code return; } Assembly Code Func1: #label Push 10 Push 5 Jmp func2 Add 2 Func2: #label Push BasePointer BasePointer = StackPointer Sub 1 Sub 10 #some code Add 10 Add 1 Pop BasePointer 10 5

41. Function Call – Step 6 Stack Base Pointer Stack Pointer 9995 9997 Code Function func1() { func2(5, 10); } Function func2(int x, int y) { int a; int[10] b; //Some code return; } Assembly Code Func1: #label Push 10 Push 5 Jmp func2 Add 2 StackPointer Func2: #label Push BasePointer BasePointer = StackPointer Sub 1 StackPointer Sub 10 StackPointer #some code Add 10 StackPointer Add 1 StackPointer Pop BasePointer

42. Function call - summary 1.Arguments are copied (passed by value) on the stack from right to left (In the C calling convention) 2.The return address is pushed 3.The old base pointer is pushed 4.We make place for local variables (but is not intialized and contans “Garbage”) Call 1.Remove the space from the local variables (everything there is destroyed) 2.The old base pointer is restored 3.The return address is poped and jumped to. 4.Parameters are destroyed Return 1.All access to local variables or parameters are relative to the base pointer 2.i.e the compiler does not transalate “localVar” to “FF55”, but to “BasePointer - 1” Access

43. The Heap Operating System Reserved.data Break (Heap).text.bss StackStack 0 FFFFFFFF C Code Int* myPtr = NULL; myPtr = alloc(sizeof(int)); If(myPtr == NULL) exit(1); //Some code free(myPtr); C++ Code Int* myPtr = NULL; myPtr = new(sizeof(int)); If(myPtr == NULL) exit(1); //Some code delete(myPtr); myPtr Points here after malloc and new ?????

44. Heap vs Stack Summary All types of objects can be allocated both on the stack and on the heap To use the heap we must have a pointer and then call “malloc” or “new” Objects created on the stack are automatically destroyed when the function exists (unless with the keyword static in C which actually creates in the data section) Objects created on the heap, must be explicitly freed with “free”, or “malloc” – IF the pointer is destroyed then we are stuck (or if we just forgat)

45. Copying.data a = 1 b = a c* = &a d* = c 00000001 Variable a @(01010101) Variable b @ (11110000) Code 01010101Variable c @ (11110011) 01010101Variable d @ (11111111) IndirectIndirect

46. Copying And Then Changing.data a = 1 b = a b = 2 //Not affecting a c* = &a d* = c 00000001 00000010 Variable a @(01010101) Variable b @ (11110000) Code 01010101Variable c @ (11110011) 01010101Variable d @ (11111111) IndirectIndirect

47. Copying Pointers And Then Changing Value.data a = 1 b = a b = 2 //Not affecting a c* = &a d* = c (*d) = 3 00000011 00000010 Variable a @(01010101) Variable b @ (11110000) Code 01010101Variable c @ (11110011) 01010101Variable d @ (11111111) IndirectIndirect

48. Copying Pointers And Then Changing Pointer Value.data a = 1 b = a b = 2 //Not affecting a c* = &a d* = c (*d) = 3 d = &b (*d) = 4 00000011 00000100 Variable a @(01010101) Variable b @ (11110000) Code 01010101Variable c @ (11110011) 01010101Variable d @ (11111111) IndirectIndirect

49. Copying Summary Copying value variables, just copy the value, any change after to one does NOT affect to the other Copying pointer variables, both point to the same value variable – Any change to the value variable via one of the pointers IS reflected to the other – Any changes to the pointer value of one is NOT reflected by the other pointer, and also not affect the original value variable

50. Pointer vs Reference Problems with pointers, stack and heap so far: – A pointer can be directly (by intention or accidently) changed to access any memory – Failure to free the allocated heap results in a memory leak – Forgetting to free the allocated heap till the function returns, then there is no longer a way to free it – Creating a large object on the stack is not worth, and of course not to pass by value

51. References Reference is the same as a pointer but without the ability to change the memory address, only possible to change pointing from one object of the same type to another Code object myVar = new object(); object myVar2 = myVar;//myVar2 points to the same object as myVar myVar = new object();//Now myVar points to a new object, while myVar2 points to the old A primitive variable is in general a value type and cannot be NULL A object is generally a reference and is NULL as long there is no call to “new()” Now the compiler can keep track of what is referenced by what

52. Garbage Collection Garbage Collection means to free heap memory no longer in use In COM and VB6 (based on COM) it is done by keeping a count of the variables that still reference the object – For each new reference it is incremented, and for each out of scope or null or just change in reference it is decremented – When the reference count reaches 0 it is deleted – Problem if two objects just reference each other, they will never be deleted In Java and.Net the JVM and CLR keep track of objects that are not referenced by real references

53. Null Pointer And DB Null A pointer or reference not pointing anywhere is pointing to null In C NULL is a constant with the value 0 0 == Null (in C) and null == null NULL + “SomeString” = “SomeString” – (but not in Linq To SQL!!! WATCH OUT) In Database it is different NULL is nothing NULL = NULL is also NULL, use IS NULL NULL + “someString” is NULL WHERE NOT IN(NULL) is corrupting everything SQL Server has an option “SET ANSI NULLS OFF”, and MySQl has an operator to compare Nulls

54. NaN Division of an integer by 0 is an error Division of a floating point by 0 results in Nan Check for Nan by checking This does not work for a database NULL IEEE NaN == NaN = false NaN != NaN = false Java NaN == NaN = false NaN != NaN = true If((myVar == myVar) == false) If(myVar.IsNaN()) NULL == NULL = NULL NULL != NULL = NULL

55. Characters

56. String

57. String Quoting

58. Pass By Value vs Pass By Reference

59. Immutable Strings