1. RESEARCH POSTER PRESENTATION DESIGN © 2012 www.PosterPresentations.com (—THIS SIDEBAR DOES NOT PRINT—) DESIGN GUIDE This PowerPoint 2007 template produces a 36”x48” presentation poster. You can use it to create your research poster and save valuable time placing titles, subtitles, text, and graphics. We provide a series of online tutorials that will guide you through the poster design process and answer your poster production questions. To view our template tutorials, go online to PosterPresentations.com and click on HELP DESK. When you are ready to print your poster, go online to PosterPresentations.com Need assistance? Call us at 1.510.649.3001 QUICK START Zoom in and out As you work on your poster zoom in and out to the level that is more comfortable to you. Go to VIEW > ZOOM. Title, Authors, and Affiliations Start designing your poster by adding the title, the names of the authors, and the affiliated institutions. You can type or paste text into the provided boxes. 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Go to PosterPresentations.com for more information. Student discounts are available on our Facebook page. Go to PosterPresentations.com and click on the FB icon. © 2013 PosterPresentations.com 2117 Fourth Street, Unit C Berkeley CA 94710 posterpresenter@gmail.com Table 1. Effect of Reciprocity and Target on Helping Judgments Hamilton’s (1964) inclusive fitness hypothesis postulates that individuals incur a personal cost by helping others and so will be more inclined to do so when others share similar genes. This inclination will be particularly likely when the potential cost and/or the recipient’s need involves threat to survival. Burnstein, Crandall, and Kitayama (1994) found evidence consistent with this hypothesis. Specifically, among human participants, judgments of helping kin were higher when the need was a matter of life or death for the recipient. Although often interpreted in terms of inclusive fitness, alternative explanations besides genetic similarity with kin can explain the kinship effect on helping judgments. These explanations include higher valuing of kin (Batson, 2011), higher perceived similarity with kin (Krebs, 1975), and higher potential for reciprocity from kin (Stewart-Williams, 2007; Trivers, 1971) Burnstein et al. (1994) reported one study in which participants imagined living in an environment in which famine and disease were prevalent. When genetic relatedness of kin was held constant, judgments of helping were highest for kin near an age at which they would be most reproductively viable (those closer in age to late adolescence). Although interpreted as strong evidence of the inclusive fitness hypothesis the Burnstein et al.’s famine and disease results could be due to higher judgments of helping kin perceived as more capable of reciprocating assistance in a harsh environment as opposed to reproductive viability. Kinship and Helping Present Study Results Discussion Judgments of helping likelihood were lower for strangers than for kin. Judgments of helping likelihood failed to pattern as predicted by either the inclusive fitness hypothesis or the reciprocity hypothesis. Instead, judgments among kin appeared to reflect perceptions of vulnerability such that participants judged they would help vulnerable targets (infant, elder) more so than less vulnerable targets (child, adolescent, adult). Implications and Limitations Although the present study used a need scenario similar to Burnstein et al. (1994), the present findings were inconsistent with their findings. Several obvious differences between the present study and Burnstein et al.’s may have contributed to the inconsistent findings, although they would be expected to strengthen the potential inclusive fitness effect on helping judgments in the present study: o Potential personal risk to the helper was made more salient by specifically stating that helping would expose the helper to disease. o The infant target was made more concrete by specifying the infant was 3 days old, whereas Burnstein et al. described the infant as being less than 3 months old. A third major difference was that participants evaluated the likelihood of helping a single target in the present study, whereas participants were presented a forced-choice decision of which target to help in the Burnstein et al. study. Target contrast in the previous findings may have made more salient differences in reproductive potential of the targets. If so, the present findings juxtaposed with those of Burnstein et al. suggest that concerns regarding genetic similarity of the target in need may only occur when making comparative judgments. University of Wisconsin Oshkosh, Department of Psychology Willing, J., Gu, X., & Lishner, D. A. Kinship and Judgments of Helping Behavior Batson, C. D. (2011). Altruism in humans. New York: Oxford University Press. Burnstein, E., Crandall, C., & Kitayama, S. (1994). Some neo-Darwinian decision rules for altruism: Weighing cues for inclusive fitness as a function of the biological importance of the decision. Journal Of Personality And Social Psychology, 67, 773-789. Hamilton, W. D. (1964). The genetical evolution of social behavior, Part I and II. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 7, 1-52. Krebs, D. L. (1975). Empathy and altruism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32, 1134–1146. Stewart-Williams, S. (2007). Altruism among kin vs. nonkin: Effects of cost of help and reciprocal exchange. Evolution And Human Behavior, 28, 193-198. Trivers, R. L. (1971). The evolution of reciprocal altruism. Quarterly Review of Biology, 46, 35 – 57. References Method Participants N = 273 undergraduate students Participants were randomly assigned to one condition in a 2 (Reciprocity: no reciprocity vs. control) x 6 (Target age: infant vs. child vs. adolescent vs. adult vs. elder) design. Procedure After providing informed consent, participants completed and imagination task/questionnaire. In the task, participants were asked to first imagine a target person and then write a brief description of what they imagined. Except for the stranger condition, the age of the target and the kinship of the target were varied to manipulate age while keeping genetic relatedness equal among the various targets: o Stranger o Infant (3-day old half sister) o Child (10-year old half sister) o Adolescent (18-year old half sister) o Adult (45-year old aunt) o Elder (75-year old grandmother). After imagining the target, participants were asked to respond to the following scenario using a 10-point scale (1 = I would absolutely not share food and care for him or her, 10 = I would absolutely share food and care for him or her): Imagine yourself as a citizen of a sub-Saharan country that has suffered widespread famine and disease. Babies often do not survive the first 6 months of life and even those that do still often perish before becoming adults. The average life span is short so that few people survive into their 60s. Now imagine that you are asked to gather food for the person you imagined earlier. How likely would you be to share your own food with this person and risk exposure to disease to care for him or her? Those in the no reciprocity condition were asked to respond to the above scenario but the following sentence was added to the end of the scenario: “Assume this person would be unable to help you in any way in the future.” Figure 1. Effect of Target on Helping Judgments after Collapsing Across Reciprocity Condition Goal Conceptually replicate the Burnstein et al. (1994) famine and disease study while manipulating the expectation of reciprocity from the kin target in need. Competing Predictions Inclusive Fitness Hypothesis: Judgments of helping will be highest for genetically similar kin who are closest in age to late adolescence/young adulthood than for very young or old kin. Reciprocity Hypothesis: Judgments of helping will be highest for genetically similar kin who are closest in age to late adolescence/young adulthood, but only when the potential for reciprocity exits. Table 2. Polynomial Contrast Test of Target Effect on Helping Judgments Note. The inclusive fitness hypothesis predicts no interaction and a quadratic trend in both reciprocity conditions, whereas the reciprocity hypothesis predicts an interaction and a quadratic trend only in the no reciprocity information condition. Variance SS df MS F Reciprocity1.121.208 Target 105.975 21.19 3.95* Interaction 26.19 5 5.24.98 Error 1401.98261 5.37 *p <.05 t df p Linear 2.45 261.015 Quadratic -1.42 261. 156 Cubic 2.85 261.005 Order 4 -1.80 261.073 Order 5. 12 261.905