1. An Introduction to Argument

2. Recognizing Arguments Arguments are all around us There are different types of arguments ▫Everyday disagreements ▫Academic arguments College level writing often engages in academic argumentation

3. Defining Argument An Argument is NOT: A quarrel – an angry exchange Spin – the positive or biased spin politicians put on facts Propaganda – information or misinformation that is spread to support a particular viewpoint These are informal arguments – everyday disputes that happen in daily life ▫Often rely on emotion

4. Argument = Academic Argument An Academic Argument IS: Takes a stand Presents evidence Uses logic to convince an audience to accept (or at least consider) the writer’s position Strives to be fair and show respect for others – especially those who present opposing arguments These are formal arguments that have structure and intellectual rigor ▫Often relies on logic

5. Academic Arguments Take a position with which reasonable people may disagree ▫Never actually proves anything  Instead, the best that an argument can do is to convince other people to accept (or at least acknowledge) the validity of its position Take a stand that is debatable – there must be conflicting opinions or conflicting facts that call the validity of the statement into question ▫Topics that are not debatable and not suitable for argument include:  Statements of Fact: verifiable, not debatable  Statements of Personal Preference or Taste: not wrong or right, just personal

6. Academic Arguments Focus on issues that are quite complex ▫Typically have more than two sides (not just right and wrong) ▫Should be considered from a number of angles in order to examine the issue thoroughly Presenting a complex issue as if it had only two choices when in fact there are actually many others is called the either/or fallacy

7. Why Instructors Assign Argument To encourage students to develop and defend a position To help students to learn to look closely at their own and other people’s ideas To give students the tools they need to convince others of the validity of their ideas To help students learn to resolve conflicting points of view And more….!

8. Characteristics of a Strong Argument Clear Thesis Convincing Support Effective Refutation of Opposing Arguments

9. Benefits of a Strong Argument Establish your credibility – worth listening to! Helps you define an issue and express your position clearly and logically Increase your chances of convincing your audience that your position is worth considering ▫Present yourself as well-informed, reasonable, and considerate of the needs of your readers (even those who disagree with you)

10. Benefits of Studying Argumentation Part of democracy Understanding the methods of argumentation means you will be able to recognize, analyze, and respond to the arguments you hear Makes you: ▫A clearer thinker ▫A more informed citizen ▫More influential to people around you

11. Winning and Losing Arguments The goal of an argument is not always to determine a winner and loser Sometimes the goal of an argument is to identify a problem and suggest solutions that could satisfy those who hold different positions on the issue In order to develop a convincing argument, you would need to employ effective strategies

12. A Good Argument is Persuasive Persuasion = a general term that refers to how a speaker or writer influences an audience to adopt a particular belief or to follow a specific course of action Aristotle – Greek Philosopher ▫(5 th Century B.C.) ▫The Art of Rhetoric – three different means (or “appeals” of persuasion that a speaker (or writer) can use to persuade listeners (or readers)  Logos – the appeal to reason (or logic)  Pathos – the appeal to emotions  Ethos – the appeal to authority The three types of appeal can be combined to create an effective argument

13. Logos – The Appeal to Reason/Logic Persuasive because the argument is well- constructed Focuses on organization ▫Organization is determined by formal logic which uses inductive and deductive reasoning to reach valid conclusions Appeals to reason/logic convince the audience that a conclusion is both valid and true

14. Is Logos Used Effectively? Does the argument have a clear thesis? (Can you identify the main point the author is trying to make?) Does the argument include the facts, examples, and expert opinion needed to support the thesis? Is the argument well organized? Are the points the argument makes presented in logical order? Can you detect any errors in logic (fallacies) that undermine the argument’s reasoning?

15. Pathos – The Appeal to Emotion Persuasive because emotions add a human dimension to an argument ▫Appeals to audience’s sympathies ▫Helps them identify with the subject being discussed Turns abstract concepts into concrete examples ▫Compel the audience to take action Weaknesses of pathos ▫Emotions can add to a strong argument, but are not considered proof ▫Certain kinds of emotional appeals (to fear, hatred, prejudice, etc) are considered unacceptable in college writing

16. Is Pathos Used Effectively? Does the argument include words or images designed to move readers? Does the argument use emotionally loaded language? Does the argument include vivid descriptions or striking examples calculated to appeal to readers’ emotions? Are the values and beliefs of the writer apparent in the argument? Does the tone sound emotional?

17. Ethos – The Appeal to Authority Persuasive because the argument is built upon the character or authority of the writer Audiences determine whether or not the writer is worth listening to (has credibility): ▫If the person making the argument is known to be honorable, truthful, knowledgeable, and trustworthy, audiences will accept the argument ▫If the person making the argument is known to be deceitful, ignorant, dishonest, uninformed, or dishonorable, audiences will dismiss the argument

18. Is Ethos Used Effectively? Does the person making the argument demonstrate knowledge of the subject? What steps does the person making the argument take to present its position as reasonable? Does the argument seem fair? If the argument includes sources, do they seem both reliable and credible? Does the argument include proper documentation? Does the person making the argument demonstrate respect for opposing viewpoints?

19. The Rhetorical Triangle Logos (Logic/Reason) Focuses on the Text Pathos (Emotions) Focuses on the Audience Ethos (Authority) Focuses on the Writer

20. The Rhetorical Triangle Effective arguments employ logos, pathos, and ethos differently depending on: ▫The Audience ▫The Purpose ▫The Situation Some effective arguments use all three or choose just one or two. When multiple appeals are used they might be employed equally or one may be emphasized The three appeals often work together (to varying degrees) to create effective argument

21. Defining Your Audience When writing, you are writing for an audience ▫May or may not agree with you It is tempting to write for a general group of readers However, defining your audience and keeping them in mind when you write helps you ▫Decide what material to include ▫Decide how to present it This makes your argument more persuasive because the form and content is tailored to the specific audience

22. Audience Characteristics to Keep in Mind Ideas about the subject Perspectives Preconceptions Level of knowledge about the topic

23. Types of Audiences Friendly Audience – sympathetic to your argument Hostile Audience – disagrees with your position and does not accept the underlying assumptions of your argument Neutral Audience – has no preconceived opinions about the issue

24. Friendly Audience Characteristics: ▫Might already agree with you ▫Might have emotional or intellectual attachment to you or to your position ▫Receptive to your ideas How to engage a friendly audience: ▫Emphasize points of agreement ▫Reinforce the emotional bond that exists between you and the audience Be sure to strengthen your argument by: ▫Addressing concerns ▫Providing support for your points

25. Hostile Audience Characteristics: ▫Preconceived opinions against your argument How to engage a hostile audience: ▫Present your points clearly and logically ▫Include a wide range of evidence Be sure to: ▫Treat the hostile reader with respect  Show that you have taken the time to consider their arguments and that you value their concerns Recognize that you may not be able to sway the hostile audience to your point of view – the best you may be able to do is get them to admit that you have made some good points in support of your position

26. Neutral Audience Characteristics: ▫No preconceived ideas ▫May not know much about the issue  Does not mean that they are unsophisticated or unintelligent ▫Note: This is often the type of audience you would write for in your college essays How to engage a neutral audience: ▫Provide background information about the issue and about the controversy surrounding it ▫Summarize opposing points of view, present them logically, and refute them effectively Be sure to: ▫Assume that the neutral audience is also skeptical  They will question your assumptions and require supporting evidence before they accept your conclusions

27. Defining Your Audience Sometimes you are writing for a broad audience ▫Define the characteristics of the audience yourself and address them accordingly Do not wait until the last minute to define your specific audience Decide on the specific audience before you begin to write ▫Determines the kind of argument you present and the details you include or exclude from your essay