2. Ratio analysis  Is a method or process by which the relationship of items or groups of items in the financial statements are computed, and presented.  Is an important tool of financial analysis.  Is used to interpret the financial statements so that the strengths and weaknesses of a firm, its historical performance and current financial condition can be determined.

3. Utility of Ratios Accounting ratios are very useful in assessing the financial position and profitability of an enterprise. However its utility lies in comparison of the ratios.

4. Utility of Ratios Comparison may be in any one of the following forms: For the same enterprise over a number of years For two enterprises in the same industry For one enterprise against the industry as a whole For one enterprise against a pre-determined standard For inter-segment comparison within the same organisation

5. Classification of Ratios Ratios can be broadly classified into four groups namely: Liquidity ratios Capital structure/leverage ratios Profitability ratios Activity ratios

6. Liquidity ratios These ratios analyse the short-term financial position of a firm and indicate the ability of the firm to meet its short-term commitments (current liabilities) out of its short-term resources (current assets). These are also known as ‘solvency ratios’. The ratios which indicate the liquidity of a firm are: Current ratio Liquidity ratio or Quick ratio or acid test ratio

7. Current ratio It is calculated by dividing current assets by current liabilities. Current ratio = Current assets where Current liabilities Conventionally a current ratio of 2:1 is considered satisfactory

8. CURRENT ASSETS include – Inventories of raw material, WIP, finished goods, stores and spares, sundry debtors/receivables, short term loans deposits and advances, cash in hand and bank, prepaid expenses, incomes receivables and marketable investments and short term securities.

9. CURRENT LIABILITIES include – sundry creditors/bills payable, outstanding expenses, unclaimed dividend, advances received, incomes received in advance, provision for taxation, proposed dividend, instalments of loans payable within 12 months, bank overdraft and cash credit

10. Quick Ratio or Acid Test Ratio This is a ratio between quick current assets and current liabilities (alternatively quick liabilities). It is calculated by dividing quick current assets by current liabilities (quick current liabilities) Quick ratio = quick assets where Current liabilities/(quick liabilities) Conventionally a quick ratio of 1:1 is considered satisfactory.

11. QUICK ASSETS & QUICK LIABILITIES QUICK ASSETS are current assets (as stated earlier) less prepaid expenses and inventories. QUICK LIABILITIES are current liabilities (as stated earlier) less bank overdraft and incomes received in advance.

12. Capital structure/ leverage ratios These ratios indicate the long term solvency of a firm and indicate the ability of the firm to meet its long-term commitment with respect to (i)repayment of principal on maturity or in predetermined instalments at due dates and (ii)periodic payment of interest during the period of the loan.

13. Capital structure/ leverage ratios The different ratios are: – Debt equity ratio – Proprietary ratio – Debt to total capital ratio – Interest coverage ratio – Debt service coverage ratio

14. Debt equity ratio This ratio indicates the relative proportion of debt and equity in financing the assets of the firm. It is calculated by dividing long-term debt by shareholder’s funds. Debt equity ratio = long-term debts where Shareholders funds Generally, financial institutions favour a ratio of 2:1. However this standard should be applied having regard to size and type and nature of business and the degree of risk involved.

15. LONG-TERM FUNDS are long-term loans whether secured or unsecured like – debentures, bonds, loans from financial institutions etc. SHAREHOLDER’S FUNDS are equity share capital plus preference share capital plus reserves and surplus minus fictitious assets (eg. Preliminary expenses, past accumulated losses, discount on issue of shares etc.)

16. Profitability ratios Profitability ratios in relation to investments Return on assets (ROA) Return on capital employed (ROCE) Return on shareholder’s equity (ROE) Earnings per share (EPS) Dividend per share (DPS) Dividend payout ratio (D/P) Price earning ratio (P/E)

17. Gross profit margin This ratio is calculated by dividing gross profit by sales. It is expressed as a percentage. Gross profit is the result of relationship between prices, sales volume and costs. Gross profit margin = gross profit x 100 Net sales

18. Gross profit margin A firm should have a reasonable gross profit margin to ensure coverage of its operating expenses and ensure adequate return to the owners of the business ie. the shareholders. To judge whether the ratio is satisfactory or not, it should be compared with the firm’s past ratios or with the ratio of similar firms in the same industry or with the industry average.

19. Net profit margin This ratio is calculated by dividing net profit by sales. It is expressed as a percentage. This ratio is indicative of the firm’s ability to leave a margin of reasonable compensation to the owners for providing capital, after meeting the cost of production, operating charges and the cost of borrowed funds. Net profit margin = net profit after interest and tax x 100 Net sales

20. Net profit margin Another variant of net profit margin is operating profit margin which is calculated as: Operating profit margin = net profit before interest and tax x 100 Net sales Higher the ratio, greater is the capacity of the firm to withstand adverse economic conditions and vice versa

21. Return on assets (ROA) This ratio measures the profitability of the total funds of a firm. It measures the relationship between net profits and total assets. The objective is to find out how efficiently the total assets have been used by the management. Return on assets = net profit after taxes plus interest x 100 Total assets Total assets exclude fictitious assets. As the total assets at the beginning of the year and end of the year may not be the same, average total assets may be used as the denominator.

22. Return on capital employed (ROCE) This ratio measures the relationship between net profit and capital employed. It indicates how efficiently the long-term funds of owners and creditors are being used. Return on capital employed = net profit after taxes plus interest x 100 Capital employed CAPITAL EMPLOYED denotes shareholders funds and long-term borrowings. To have a fair representation of the capital employed, average capital employed may be used as the denominator.

23. Return on shareholders equity This ratio measures the relationship of profits to owner’s funds. Shareholders fall into two groups i.e. preference shareholders and equity shareholders. So the variants of return on shareholders equity are Return on total shareholder’s equity = net profits after taxes x 100 Total shareholders equity.

24. TOTAL SHAREHOLDER’S EQUITY includes preference share capital plus equity share capital plus reserves and surplus less accumulated losses and fictitious assets. To have a fair representation of the total shareholders funds, average total shareholders funds may be used as the denominator

25. Earnings per share (EPS) This ratio measures the profit available to the equity shareholders on a per share basis. This ratio is calculated by dividing net profit available to equity shareholders by the number of equity shares. Earnings per share = net profit after tax – preference dividend Number of equity shares

26. Price earning ratio (P/E) This ratio is computed by dividing the market price of the shares by the earnings per share. It measures the expectations of the investors and market appraisal of the performance of the firm. Price earning ratio = market price per share Earnings per share

27. Inventory /stock turnover ratio This ratio indicates the number of times inventory is replaced during the year. It measures the relationship between cost of goods sold and the inventory level. There are two approaches for calculating this ratio, namely: Inventory turnover ratio = cost of goods sold Average stock AVERAGE STOCK can be calculated as Opening stock + closing stock 2 Alternatively Inventory turnover ratio = sales_________ Closing inventory

28. Inventory /stock turnover ratio A firm should have neither too high nor too low inventory turnover ratio. Too high a ratio may indicate very low level of inventory and a danger of being out of stock and incurring high ‘stock out cost’. On the contrary too low a ratio is indicative of excessive inventory entailing excessive carrying cost.

29. Debtors turnover ratio and average collection period This ratio is a test of the liquidity of the debtors of a firm. It shows the relationship between credit sales and debtors. Debtors turnover ratio = Credit sales Average Debtors and bills receivables Average collection period = Months/days in a year Debtors turnover

30. Debtors turnover ratio and average collection period These ratios are indicative of the efficiency of the trade credit management. A high turnover ratio and shorter collection period indicate prompt payment by the debtor. On the contrary low turnover ratio and longer collection period indicates delayed payments by the debtor. In general a high debtor turnover ratio and short collection period is preferable.

31. Creditors turnover ratio and average credit period This ratio shows the speed with which payments are made to the suppliers for purchases made from them. It shows the relationship between credit purchases and average creditors. Creditors turnover ratio = credit purchases Average creditors & bills payables Average credit period = months/days in a year Creditors turnover ratio

32. Creditors turnover ratio and average credit period Higher creditors turnover ratio and short credit period signifies that the creditors are being paid promptly and it enhances the creditworthiness of the firm.