1. Voices of Dissent

2.  1952  Brown v. Board of Education ▪ Linda Brown ▪ Long Walk ▪ Across Railroad Tracks  NAACP ▪ Thurgood Marshall ▪ Lowered their self worth  Earl Warren  Chief Justice  Declared segregation illegal ▪ Public Schools  Supreme Court  Unanimous Ruling  South Carolina Governor James Byrnes  “desegregation would mark the beginning of the end of civilization in the South as we have known it.”

3.  Despite Ruling  Desegregation in South ▪ Moved slowly  1956-57 ▪ Remained segregated  Little Rock  1 st to announce it would comply  9 African American students ▪ All-White Central High School  Governor Orval Faubus ▪ Ordered National Guard ▪ Surround school (attacks by armed protestors)

4.  Little Rock Nine  Sept. 23 rd ▪ Riot  Eisenhower  Orders 1,000 Troops ▪ 101 st Airborne  Sept. 25 th ▪ Fixed Bayonets ▪ Nine entered the school  Difficulties  Harassment ▪ Minniejean Brown ▪ Expelled ▪ “One down, eight to go”  May 1958  Ernest Green ▪ 1 st African American to graduate Central High School

5.  Desegregate  Southern Transport  December 1 st, 1955  Rosa Parks ▪ Refused to give up seat ▪ Convicted of crime ▪ Lost Jobs ▪ Worked for NAACP ▪ Congressional Medal of Honor  50,000 African Americans  Organized against bus system  Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA)  Spokesman ▪ Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. ▪ Baptist Minister ▪ Studied Mohandas K. Gandhi  Houses of leaders ▪ Bombed

6.  November 1956  Supreme Court ▪ Montgomery and Alabama laws ▪ Unconstitutional  Martin Luther King ▪ “We had won self-respect” ▪ Accused of being a communist ▪ Opponents of Civil rights  Civil Rights Act of 1957  Crime to prevent qualified persons from voting  Commission ▪ Investigate violations of the law

7.  Hispanic Experience  Felix Longoria ▪ Refused burial in hometown ▪ Senator Lyndon B. Johnson ▪ Burial in Arlington National Cemetery ▪ League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC) ▪ Fight for Hispanic rights  Asian Experience  1952 ▪ Repealed Chinese Exclusion Act ▪ Not “ideal” American ▪ Sheng Family ▪ Blocked by white owners

8.  Termination  Ending of Reservation system ▪ Tribe by Tribe basis  Cut Federal Funding ▪ Protest  Relocation Act of 1956  Encouraged Move ▪ Urban Areas  Eisenhower backed away ▪ “no longer support termination of tribes without their consent”

9.  Ralph Ellison  African American writer ▪ Invisible Man ▪ Search for place in society  John Kenneth Galbraith  Harvard Economist ▪ Warning privileged Americans ▪ The Affluent Society  Ignoring social issues in pursuit of material possessions  Conformity  Wiping out ▪ Individualism  The Beats  Writers ▪ Jack Kerouac ▪ On the Road  Poets

10.  30-40 Million  Living below poverty level  Rural Residents  Farmers ▪ Productivity Increased ▪ Foreign Countries recover ▪ Prices fell dramatically ▪ Large farms ▪ Afford gasoline powered tractors  Urban Residents  Rural people flock to cities  By 1960 ▪ 20 million in poverty ▪ African American / Hispanics ▪ Could not get housing  Urban Renewal Programs  Replace ▪ Old Buildings ▪ Old Housing Units ▪ High Crime Rates