2. 1 Spiritual Transformations of the 2 nd Century BCE Jeffrey L. Richey, Ph.D. REL 231 Religions of India and Tibet Berea College Fall 2003

3. 2 THE MAURYAN EMPIRE (321-185 BCE)

4. 3 INDIA IN THE 2 ND CENTURY BCE Unified under Mauryan Empire Host to multiple intellectual movements and religious traditions, including: 1. Vedic orthodoxy 2. Upanishadic schools (Samkhya, Yoga) 3. Non-Vedic heterodoxy (Jaina, Theravāda) 4. “Popular religion” (cults of deities such as Narayana, Vasudeva, Krishna) Development of 2 textual categories: 1. Şruti (“that which is heard”) – revealed scripture, e.g., Vedas 2. Smriti (“that which is remembered”) – wisdom of sages, e.g., epics Emergence of 3 distinct spiritual paths within Vedic tradition: 1. Karmamarga (“path of action”) – dharma-oriented, rooted in Vedas 2. Jñanamarga (“path of knowledge”) – asceticism- oriented, rooted in Upanişads 3. Bhaktimarga (“path of devotion”) – worship-oriented, rooted in epics Characteristics of the period: 1. Philosophically mystical 2. Religiously eclectic 3. Socially conservative

5. 4 THE BHAGAVAD GĪTĀ “Song of the Lord” Small portion of Mahābhārata: 1. Longest poem in world 2. Describes war of succession to leadership of kşatriya Bhārata clan, c. 1000 BCE Attained final written form between 600 and 100 BCE Technically smriti, but popularly regarded as şruti Concerns conflict between two families within Bhārata clan: 1. Kauravas (majority) 2. Pandavas (minority, including Prince Arjuna)

6. 5 THEMES IN THE GĪTĀ Reinterprets older concepts: 1. Brahman 2. Dharma 3. Karma Introduces avatāra (“incarnation”) concept – manifestation of ultimate reality (e.g., deity) in temporal form (e.g., human being) Develops 3 paradoxes: 1. “nondualistic theism” 2. “deterministic freedom” 3. “universalistic sectarianism”

7. 6 “NONDUALISTIC THEISM” How can Krishna be both Brahman and avatāra? In Upanişads: 1. Brahman = impersonal absolute force, all-in-all 2. Ātman = collective identity of self in relation to whole 3. Advaita = nonduality as ultimate nature of reality In Gītā: 1. Krishna = personal deity 2. Arjuna = individual self 3. Dvaita = duality of deity/devotee, self/other, dharma/karma, etc.

8. 7 “DETERMINISTIC FREEDOM” How can Arjuna both choose to act and acknowledge the law of karma? Human freedom is constrained by 3 factors: 1. Nature (prakriti) – basic material circumstances 2. Karma – consequences of previous actions that condition future actions 3. Deity – Krishna himself determines history Above all, human freedom is constrained by attachment to egoistic independence

9. 8 “UNIVERSALISTIC SECTARIANISM” How can one discern right action by cultivating karma and jñana and bhakti? Karma overcomes unrighteousness (adharma) that seeks to avoid action Jñana overcomes ignorance (avidya) about the nature of action Bhakti overcomes attachment (upadana) to the results of action All paths (margas) are valid contextually – i.e., in the context of a particular level of developed understanding Paradox is the consequence of this “progressive” theory of truth

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