1. Coronal section
of brainstem,
diencephalon,
basal telencephalic nuclei, and
emispheres.

2. Thalamus,
lateral and
third ventricles,
nucleus
caudatus,
lentiform
nuclei,
epithalamus

3. Hypothalamic structures visible at the base of enchephalon

4. Medial view of diencephalon

5. Thalamus, basal encephalic ganglia and white internal capsule

6. Grey nuclei
and white laminas
in the thalamus

7. RELEVANT FUNCTIONS OF THALAMIC NUCLEI
Midline nuclei: component of limbic system. Role in memory and awakening.
Medial nuclei: back and forth connections with olphactory, frontal and motor cortex, basal ganglia. When damaged ansiety, aggressivity and tension are reduced; amnesia is also present (similar to frontal lobotomy).
Anterior nuclei: back and forth connections with mammillary bodies, cingulum and parahippocampal area. Short term memory and attention.

8. Ventral nuclei: The anterior has connections with cerebellum, globus pallidum, and parietal cortex, and it partecipates to the “cortical recruitment response”.
The lateral has afferences from spinal lemniscus, vestibolar nuclei and substantia nigra; it has efferences to motor cortex. Its isolation reduces Parkinson’s symptoms
Ventral posteriore lateral and medial: it receives afferences from the lemnisci and vestibular nuclei; efferent fibers, grouped on the basis of type of sensation are directed to the sensory cortex.
geniculate bodyes: the lateral has afferences from retina and occipital cortex. Efferences to visual cortex via optical radiations. Crossed by retino-tectal and cortico-tectal fibers. The medial has afferences from the inferior colliculum via the inferior connecting arm. Efferences to the acustic area of the temporal lobe. .

9. Subthalamus: below the thalamus and in contact with red nucleous and substantia nigra

10. SUBTHALAMUS
White substance: is crossed by the cranial endings of the lemnisci directed to the thalamus; by dentatoto-thalamic and rubro-thalamic fasciculi; by the Forel field fibers (globus pallidus-subthalamus, subthalamus-thalamus).
Subthalamic nucleus: it has connections with the striatum and is involved in the inhibitory control of the cortical motor activity. (emiballism)

11. SUBTHALAMIC REGION AND FOREL FIELDS

12. EPITHALAMUS: pineal gland, abenular nuclei and posterior commissure.

13. Pineal gland: contains pinealocytes
Pineal gland: contains pinealocytes. It is reached by ortosimpathetic fibers and by optical fibers from the chiasma. Site of melatonin synthesis that is inhibited by light. In the hamster it inhibits gonadotropin secretion.

14. Exposed surface of the Hypothalamus: It spans from the optic chiasma to mammillary bodies

15. Transverse section of the Hypothalamus

16. HYPOTHALAMIC FUNCTIONS
Food uptake and water content control
Famine center: active at low glucose levels
Satiety control: active at high glucose levels
Thirst control: active at high osmolarity
Osmolarity control via ADH secretion
Temperature control
Perypheral vasodilatation and swet control
Peryphoeral vasoconstriction and tremor %

17. HYPOTHALAMIC FUNCTIONS
Emotion and behaviour control
Limbic and frontal afferences influence physical responses
positive inothropism
mouth drynes
reddish and pale cheek skin
perspiration
peristalsis
Vegetative nervous system control
Parasympathetic actions (negative inothropism, increased peristalsis and secretion, pupillary contraction, increased salivation)
Orthosympathetic actions (positive inothropism, reduced peristalsis and secretion, pupillary dilatation)

18. HYPOTHALAMIC AFFERENCES

19. HYPOTHALAMIC EFFERENCES

20. HYPOTHALAMIC FUNCTIONS
Endocrine activity and endocrine system control
Production of oxytocin and ADH;
Production of releasing and inhibitory hypophyseal hormones;
Neurohypophysis is reached by paraventricular and supraoptic neurones secreting oxytocine and ADH into capillaries.
Regulatory hormones of hypophyseal secretions are secreated by hypothalamic neurons into the hypophyseal portal system (ACTH-RH, FSH-RH, LH-RH, TSH-RH, GH-RH; MSH-IH, PRL-IH)

21. HYPOTHALAMIC FUNCTIONS – Neurohypophisis
HYPOPHYSEAL
PORTAL
CYRCULATION