1. Magical thinking What are the different explanations for magical thinking and superstitious behaviour? Evaluation of the evidence

2. Learning stations: Explanations Each group will be given a number which coincides with one of the explanations for magical thinking or superstitious behaviour. You need to read about the explanation and complete the tasks with the help of your group to become experts in your explanation (you can use phones to find out any further information). 1.Contagion theory 2.Psychodynamic functions hypothesis (magical thinking) 3.Cognitive deficit hypothesis 4.Psychodynamic functions hypothesis (superstitious behaviour) 5.Operant conditioning Additional: 6. Cognitive –illusion of control

3. Exam question Discuss how superstitious behaviour may develop. (6 marks)

4. Magical thinking Evaluation

5. Lindeman and Saher (2007) Cognitive deficits hypothesis Shows those with superstitious beliefs (and therefore those who engage in magical thinking) do have childlike reasoning so do have cognitive deficiencies. Seems to show - cognitive deficiencies may be important to magical thinking. Pinpoints the precise deficiency - not general IQ but ability to reason.

6. Correlation studies Do not give clear support for the cognitive deficits hypothesis. No clear correlation between IQ and paranormal beliefs so it seems that there is no obvious relationship between intelligence and magical thinking. (to believe in the paranormal some magical thinking would be involved)

7. Keinan (1994) & Dudley (1999) Psychodynamic functions hypothesis Shows when a sense of control in the situation is lost, as it would be with the unsolvable anagrams group and areas under threat of war, magical thinking and superstitions develop to increase the sense of control that the individual feels. Taken together, this evidence provides a strong range of supporting evidence for the psychodynamic functions hypothesis

8. Socially sensitive Not as simple as IQ linking to magical thinking; rather it is poor reasoning skills, as Lindeman and Saher show us. This is still socially sensitive, but it is also helpful evidence because if people are trained to improve their reasoning skills magical thinking would stop. However – is it necessary or right to stop magical thinking?

9. Soft determinism Whilst under times of stress we would expect people to develop superstitions, there will be some people who do not.

10. Superstitious thinking Evaluation

11. Skinner (1947) Supports – superstitious rituals of the pigeons were due to the reinforcement of food. Lack of replicability means reliability is low Generalisation to humans

12. Maute (1996) Supports – the participants believed the pressing of the button was linked to the stopping of the noise as this had been reinforced the 1 st time around when the noise stopped. Low ecological validity - not realistic to common superstitions.

13. Cultural transmission Vicarious reinforcement – observing other peoples superstitions being reinforced. E.g. positive reinforcement – seeing role models being lucky or negative reinforcement – seeing role models being less worried or anxious as a result of the superstition.

14. Personality factors Anomalistic psychology

15. Components of personality The combination of characteristics or qualities that form an individual's distinctive character. Consistency - There is generally a recognizable order and regularity to behaviors. Essentially, people act in the same ways or similar ways in a variety of situations. Psychological and physiological - Personality is a psychological construct, but research suggests that it is also influenced by biological processes and needs. It impacts behaviors and actions - Personality does not just influence how we move and respond in our environment; it also causes us to act in certain ways. Multiple expressions - Personality is displayed in more than just behavior. It can also be seen in our thoughts, feelings, close relationships and other social interactions

16. What is meant by personality?

17. Neuroticism Tendency to experience negative emotional states e.g. anger, anxiety, depression, guilt, rather than positive states. Positive correlation between neuroticism and paranormal beliefs

18. Research and findings Williams et al (2007) tested 300 Welsh school children and found a +0.32 significant correlation between neuroticism and paranormal beliefs. Wiseman & Watt (2004) questionnaires on neuroticism and paranormal belief. Strong correlation. (but cause and effect). Paranormal beliefs may create a distance from reality as a defence mechanism against negative emotional stress Paranormal is thought to allow neurotics to interpret and predict events and so helps them to not get worked up and overemotional

19. Evaluation Some have criticised the methods used to measure belief. – Many studies use the Paranormal Belief Scale (PBS) which includes attitudes to traditional religious belief, psi, witchcraft, superstition, spiritualism, extraordinary life forms and precognition. If we used one of these individual sub-scales, we would get different results. This would affect the validity of past research, as often correlations are with a subscale rather than the whole range of beliefs. Wiseman and Watt 2004, used just the subscale of superstition and found that neuroticism was only related to paranormal beliefs relating to bad luck – neuroticism doesn’t explain all paranormal beliefs.

20. Wider evaluation Complex relationship between personality and anomalous experience Different personality factors associated with different areas e.g. Neuroticism with belief in the paranormal, extroversion with ability (ESP)

21. Creativity Creativity is the “sequences of thoughts and actions that lead to a novel, adaptive production.” How inventive or original your thinking is.

22. Look at each row of words and write down a way that you can connect the two words 1.Potatomarriage 2.Pencilpiccolo 3.Cartrain track 4.Italypaint 5.Deck chairhole punch 6.Computermonkey

23. In the Gianotti et al (2001) study the links were rated for creativity. This score was then correlated with the individual’s belief in the paranormal. There was a positive link between belief in the paranormal and originality of the links. Findings

24. Creativity has been consistently related to belief in the paranormal. Artistic creativity has been associated with mystical experiences, lucid dreams and paranormal experiences. (Ayers, 1999) Research suggests a relationship between creative personality, artistic involvement and paranormal belief. (Thalbourne, 2005) Thalbourne (1998), conducted a meta-analysis of studies and found a correlation between creative personality and paranormal belief. Creative people were more likely to be able to make links between unrelated items, a characteristic that may underlie paranormal experiences. (Remember the face in the moon?) QHow could we evaluate these studies?

25. Additional personality factors – Extraversion – Fantasy proneness – Sensation seeking – Locus of control

26. Activity On your table, share your ideas on the piece of paper. Define the personality factors? How do they link to anomalous experience (provide evidence) – Extraversion – Fantasy proneness – Sensation seeking – Locus of control

27. Fantasy Proneness This is the tendency to be so deeply involved in a fantasy that it feels as if it is actually happening. Paranormal believers are more fantasy prone. Wiseman et al 2003 found that deep absorption (being very involved in a task) may enable people to overlook the facts and believe in events they know are not true. They set up a mock séance, where everyone knew it wasn’t real and they were simply acting as if it were a séance. During the séance, one actor suggested the table was levitating when it wasn’t. After the séance, more believers than non-believers reported that the table had moved. Believers were more deeply absorbed than non-believers and this led them to believe, despite knowing it to be fake. This also explains why believers may be more easily fooled in general.

28. Fantasy Proneness Gow et al 2004 compared a group claiming alien abduction/UFO sighting vs. a control group. found those who reported seeing flying saucers, had higher levels of fantasy proneness and were likely to be believers. Roberts 1 in 3 studies into UFO’s & FP found a link. Why not more? Cause & effect? Fantasy-proneness individuals have a more vivid imagination, including vivid daydreams, which could sometimes seem real, and be confused to think that imagined events really happened. (Wilson and Barber, 1983)

29. Extraversion and Sensation Seeking Extraversion is a complex variable relating to one’s sociability excitement and sensation seeking, impulsivity and level of outgoingness. personality characterised by positive emotions and tendency to seek extra stimulation to increase brain arousal levels. Outgoing and seek new experiences Extraverts have low levels of cortical arousal (electrical activity in the cerebral cortex of the brain) and thus are driven to maintain an optimal level of arousal by seeking sensory (information) stimulation. Low levels of cortical arousal might allow weak stimuli, such as ESP or an abstract idea to enter awareness, causing moments of inspiration. (Eysenck, 1976)

30. Findings Peltzer 2002 found extraversion was associated with paranormal beliefs. Honorton et al 1992 conducted a meta-analysis of 60 studies relating extraversion to ESP performance and found a positive correlation. Extraverts respond better to new stimuli than introverts and are more open to paranormal experiences, which increases their beliefs.

31. Locus of Control Locus of control refers to the extent to which individuals believe they can control events affecting them. People with external locus of control are more likely to believe in the paranormal than those with internal locus of control. Relationships between belief and locus of control depend on the type of belief. (Tobacyk)

32. Locus of control There is a positive correlation between internal locus of control and belief. (Davies) – However, results may be unreliable due to the way belief is measured. Wolfradt 1997 criticised LoC stating that only some forms of psi e.g. superstition, correlate positively with an external loc, whereas others like PK, correlate negatively. The variation in results of studies of loc and anomalous experience can be due to the type of anomalous experience being measured. Groth-Marnat and Pegden 1998, found that greater external loc is associated with spirituality and precognition, whereas internal loc was associated with superstition.

33. Jo and Frankie are watching a television programme about paranormal action. A stage performer is apparently using the power of his mind to influence dice thrown by another person. The person rolls a pair of dice three times and rolls a double six each time. Jo gets very excited. Jo shouts: “Wow! That is amazing. I think I could train myself to use the power of my mind to make things happen.” Frankie replies: “Calm down. It’s just a coincidence. Nobody can use the power of their mind to influence events like that.” Frankie thinks that it is just a coincidence. Jo does not agree. Explain what is meant by coincidence in this context. (2 marks) Jo and Frankie interpret the same experience differently. Use your knowledge of personality factors to explain why people interpret anomalous experiences differently. (4 marks)