1. SYNTAX
Sentence Structure

2. What about syntax?
It’s not enough to just recognize types of sentences; you must understand their functions in a whole passage
AP Language exam requires you to look at the whole passage to determine how sentences are used
You must look at the entire passage; see how every sentence works together to deliver the author’s message

3. Syntax “Indicators” Sentence Function Grammatical Classification
Sentence Length
Rhetorical Sentences

4. Sentence Function Declarative: makes a statement
You ate lunch.
Interrogative: asks a question
Did you eat lunch?
Imperative: gives a command
Eat your lunch.
Exclamatory: expresses strong feeling
Please eat your lunch!

5. Grammatical Classification
Simple Sentence: one independent clause and no dependent clauses; may contain compound subject, compound verb, and one or more phrases
John and Alyssa waved at Kyleigh.
Compound Sentence: contains two or more independent clauses and no dependent clauses; independent clauses may be joined by a comma and a coordinating conjunction (remember FANBOYS?)
John and Alyssa waved, but they did not speak.

6. Grammatical Classification
Complex Sentence: contains an independent clause and one or more dependent clauses
Although John and Alyssa waved at Kyleigh, they did not speak.
Compound-Complex Sentence: contains two independent clauses and at least one dependent clause
Although John and Alyssa waved at Kyleigh, they did not speak, and they did not stop.

7. What about length? Short Long A combination of lengths
A lengthy sentence followed by a very short one will effectively stress a point. Try it.

8. Kinds of Sentences (Rhetorical Sentences)
You love these.
Periodic Sentence
Cumulative Sentence
Rhetorical Question

9. Periodic Sentence
A periodic sentence is one in which the main idea (subject and verb) comes at the end of the sentence; the sentence is not grammatically complete until the end.
Sitting in her lounge chair, sunglasses shielding her eyes, head tilting to the side, her book lying open on her lap, Brianna patiently waited.

10. Cumulative Sentence
A cumulative sentence is one which begins with the main idea (an independent clause) which is followed by phrases and clauses that elaborate upon the main idea.
Brianna patiently waited, sitting in her lounge chair, sunglasses shielding her eyes, head tilting to the side, her book lying open on her lap.

11. Rhetorical Question You know this.
A rhetorical question does not require an answer because the answer is obvious.

12. SO FAR: Syntax Indicators
Function
Declarative
Interrogative
Imperative
Exclamatory
Grammatical Classification
Simple
Compound
Complex
Compound-Complex
Length
Short
Lengthy
Combination
Rhetorical Sentences
Periodic
Cumulative
Rhetorical Question

13. Moving on to Punctuation
Look for the use of any punctuation other than a period or a comma.
Mounting excitement, distress, fear, anger, etc. through the use of dashes or exclamation points
Question may be a spring-board to make a particular point or indicate shift in tone
Lack of punctuation could be important

14. Example
Wuthering Heights by Emily Bronte; note the display of emotion and tempo of the passage made evident by dashes, exclamation points, and questions.
“May she wake in torment!” he cried, with frightful vehemence, stamping his foot, and groaning in a sudden paroxysm of ungovernable passion. “Why, she’s a liar to the end! Where is she? Not there—not in heaven—not perished—where? Oh! You said you cared nothing for my sufferings! And I pray one prayer—I repeat it till my tongue stiffens—Catherine Earnshaw, may you not rest as long as I am living!”

15. Repetition. I Said Repetition.
You know this.
Use of the same words, phrases, or clauses more than one time for emphasis.
Thou shalt not kill.
Thou shalt not commit adultery.
Thou shalt not steal.
Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbor.
From Exodus 30:13-16, King James Bible

16. Parallel Structure
This is the repetition of the same grammatical structure in phrases and clauses
Match a noun with a noun, a verb with a verb, etc.
A Tale of Two Cities by Charles Dickens
It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair . . .

17. Speaking of parallelism, that was antithesis!
This is used to show contrast.
It’s often a type of parallelism.

18. Rhythm, Beat, Movement
Sometimes, authors create a kind of tempo through a pattern of sounds. This might be a result of parallel structure or repetition.
If we wish to be free—if we meant to preserve inviolate those inestimable privileges for which we have been so long contending—if we mean not basely to abandon the noble struggle in which we have been so long engaged, and which we have pledged ourselves never to abandon until the glorious object of our contest shall be attained, we must fight! I repeat it, sir, we must fight!
-Patrick Henry

19. Inversion Mostly a poetic device
This occurs when sentence elements are placed out of their normal order.
To him who in the love of nature holds
Communion with her visible forms, she speaks
A various language . . .
Thanatopsis by William Cullen Bryant
(She speaks a various language to him who in the love of nature holds Communion with her visible forms.)

20. So, to reiterate . . .
When analyzing sentence syntax, it might help to notice the following devices:
Punctuation
Repetition
Parallel Structure
Antithesis
Rhythm / Beat / Movement
Inversion
Remember that these all work together; you must view the passage as a whole!

21. Purpose of Using Syntax
Your job is to determine why the author used a particular sentence structure to deliver his or her message.
Look at Dickens’ passage:
He uses syntax to reveal a paradox
Repeated the structure – why?
This comes from the very first page of the novel, and that sets the tone for much of the book.
It draws the reader in because it piques interest.
Look at the example from Exodus:
Why the repetition?
Adds emphasis or strength to them, “commanding” the reader’s attention.

22. Now, on to the group work.
Let’s read the passage from To Kill a Mockingbird together, going over what you actually need to do.
Then you’re on your own. Have fun!