1. ©2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Sport and Exercise Psychology Chapter 9

2. ©2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Sport and Exercise Psychology What are the psychological benefits of participation in sport and physical activities? What are different theories of behavior and what are their potential application to exercise adherence? What role do anxiety, arousal, and imagery play in the performance of motor skills? What intervention strategies can be used to regulate these factors for optimal performance? What is goal-setting and how can it be used most effectively?

3. ©2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Definition and Scope “the systemic scholarly student of behavior, feelings, and thoughts of people engaged in sport, exercise, and physical activity.” (Vealey) the psychological and mental aspects of participation in sport and exercise, seeking to understand how psychological processes influence and are influenced by participation (AAASP) “this dynamic field can enhance the experience of men, women, and children of all ages who participate in physical activity, ranking from those who do so for personal enjoyment to those who pursue a specific activity at the elite level” (ISSP)

4. ©2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Questions addressed… What is the personality profile of an elite athlete? How does anxiety influence performance? What are the psychological benefits of participation in regular physical activity? What factors influence an individual’s adherence to a rehabilitation program? How does self-confidence influence performance? What are effective intervention strategies to enhance performance?

5. ©2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Historical Development Late 1890s and early 1900s: Norman Triplett did first research on what became known as the Social Facilitation Theory. 1920s – 40s: Griffith known as the “father of sport psychology”, began to develop and apply sport psychology 1940-1965: growth of research programs in motor learning and sport psychology Johnson – emotions and competition Lawther – The Psychology of Coaching

6. ©2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Historical Development Late 1960s and 1970s:emerges as subdiscipline of PE 1979: Journal of Sport Psychology begins publication. 1980s: Researchers embraced an applied approach 1986: Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology (AAASP) was organized. Exercise psychology evolved as a specialized area of study. Increase interest by clinically trained psychologists 1988: Journal of Sport Psychology became known as Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 1990s-present Rich diversity in approaches to the field and areas of study.

7. ©2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Psychological Benefits of PA Improves health-related quality of life. Improves one’s mood. Alleviates symptoms associated with mild depression. Reduces anxiety. Aids in managing stress. Enhances self-concept, self-esteem, self- efficacy, and self-confidence. Offers opportunities for affiliation with others.

8. ©2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Psychological Benefits of PA Offers opportunities to experience “peak” moments. Provides recreation and a change of pace. Offers an opportunity for individuals to challenge themselves and strive for mastery. Offers creative and aesthetic experiences. Increasing recognition of physical activity as a therapeutic modality.

9. ©2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Exercise and Adherence Estimates reveal that nearly 50% of patients fail to comply with their medical treatment. Adherence to supervised exercise programs ranges from 50% to 80%. Only 30% of individuals who begin an exercise program will be exercising at the end of 3 years. What can be done to promote continued involvement?

10. ©2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Classic learning theories Learning a new behavior is achieved by altering the many small behaviors that compose the overall behavior. Break behavior down into smaller goals to be achieved. Work incrementally toward goal. Reinforcement is important; provide rewards and incentives (both immediate and long- range).

11. ©2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Health belief model Adoption of a health behavior depends on the person’s perception of four factors: Severity of potential illness Susceptibility to illness Benefits of taking action Barriers to action Self-efficacy is an important component of this model.

12. ©2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Social cognitive theory Behavior change is influenced by environmental factors, personal factors, and attributes of the behavior itself. Self-efficacy is central to this model. Individual must believe in his or her ability to perform the behavior and must perceive an incentive for changing the behavior. Outcomes must be valued by the individual.

13. ©2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Theory of Reasoned Action & Planned Behavior Behavior influenced strongly by intention to change Individual’s attitude toward change is important – what are the outcomes that can be achieved and what values are gained from changing Opinions of relevant others regarding change plays a role Perceived control over behavior critical factor in change

14. ©2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Transtheoretical model “Stages of change”: Precontemplation Contemplation Preparation Action Maintenance Termination Decisional balance - pros and cons of the change Self-efficacy - confidence about his/her abilities in a situation) Target the intervention to the individual’s current stage.

15. ©2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Ecological approach Comprehensive approach Development of individual skills emphasized as well as creating supportive, health- promoting environment. Environmental and societal influences and limitations on health behavior considered when planning for behavior change.

16. ©2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Exercise Dropout Low self-motivation Depression Low self-efficacy Denial of seriousness of one’s health condition Obesity Type A behavior pattern Smokers Blue-collar workers Perception that exercise has few health benefits Inactive lifestyle Sedentary occupations Lack of social support Family problems Interference of job- related responsibilities Inconvenience High-intensity exercise

17. ©2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Exercise Adherence Educational approaches u Increase participants knowledge and understanding of the benefits of physical activity and exercise. Behavioral approaches u Reinforcement u Contracting u Self-monitoring u Goal-setting u Enhancement of self-efficacy

18. ©2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Exercise Adherence Program Design Increase social support available to participants. Offer programs at convenient times and locations. Goal-setting and periodic assessment. Enthusiastic leaders. Strong communication. Establishment of rapport. Consideration of individual needs and interests.

19. ©2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Rehabilitation Adherence Strategies to enhance adherence to a rehabilitation program are important for sports medicine programs. Adherence can be increased by: Providing social support Goal setting Effective communication Tailoring program to individual needs Monitoring progress Collaborative approach to accomplishing goals

20. ©2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Personality Impact of athletics on personality development. Relationship between personality and athletic performance. Do athletes differ from nonathletes? Can athletes in certain sports be distinguished from athletes in other sports? Do individuals participate in certain sports because of their personality characteristics? Do highly skilled athletes in a sport have different personality characteristics than the lesser skilled athletes? Can personality predict success in sport? Each athlete must be treated as an individual.

21. ©2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Anxiety and Arousal Anxiety is a subjective feeling of apprehension accompanied by a heightened level of physiological arousal. Physiological arousal is an autonomic response that results in the excitation of various organs of the body. Trait and state anxiety Trait: integral part of an individual’s personality. State: emotional response to a specific situation that results in feelings of fear, tension, or apprehension. Find the optimal level of arousal that allows for peak performance.

22. ©2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Reducing Anxiety Use physical activity to release stress & anxiety. Develop precompetition routines. Simulate games in practice Tailor preparation for the competition to the individual athlete. Build self-confidence and high, but realistic expectations. Promote use of positive self-talk Help athletes keep errors in perspective Keep athletes’ focus on present, not past events Incorporate relaxation training as necessary

23. ©2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Goal-setting Specification of a level of proficiency Types of goals Outcome goals Interpersonal comparison Performance goals Personal achievement Process goals Technique

24. ©2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. How Goal-setting Works Focuses attention Mobilizes effort Fosters persistence Promotes development of new learning strategies

25. ©2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. SMART Goal-setting S = specific goals versus general M = measurable goals to monitor progress A = action-oriented goals R = realistic but achievable with effort T = time frame for achievement

26. ©2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Principles of Goal-setting Write goals down Incorporate different types of goals Set short- and long-term goals Establish individual goals within the team context Determine goals for practice and competition Ensure goals are internalized Regularly evaluate progress Provide for individual differences

27. ©2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Self-Talk Cognitive approach – relationship between individual’s thoughts and performance Positive or negative influence “Self-talk occurs whenever an individual thinks, whether making statements internally or externally.” (Williams & Leffingwell)

28. ©2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Types of Self-Talk Task-relevant statements Remind self of technique or strategy Positive statements Effort, persistence, confidence Mood statements Modify intensity

29. ©2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Application of Self-Talk Enhancing of skill acquisition Focusing of attention Modifying activation Promoting self-confidence

30. ©2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Modifying Self-Talk Thought-stopping Replacing negative thoughts with positive thoughts Countering Reframing

31. ©2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Mental Imagery “Process of using all the senses to re-create or create an experience in the mind” (Vealey and Greenleaf) “The person ‘sees’ the image, ‘feels’ the movements and/or environment in which it takes place, and ‘hears’ the sounds of the movement…” (Anderson) Systematic process that is consciously controlled by the person, who takes an active role in creating and manipulating the images and structuring the experience. Imagery in conjunction with physical practice can improve performance

32. ©2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Types of Imagery External imagery Athletes see themselves performing as if watching a videotape of their performance Internal imagery Athletes construct the image of the performance from the perspective of their own eyes, as if they were side their body when performing

33. ©2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Nature of Imagery Multiple perspectives Vividness – critical feature Multiple senses Incorporation of emotions Controllability

34. ©2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Uses of Imagery Developing sport skills Correcting errors Rehearsing performance strategies Creating an optimal mental focus for competition Developing preperformance routines Learning and enhancing mental skills Facilitating recovery from injuries and return to competition Vealey & Greenleaf

35. ©2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Intervention Strategies WHY? To help athletes achieve optimal performance. Management of anxiety and arousal Relaxation techniques Cognitive strategies Restructuring Thought stopping Self-talk Imagery Goal setting

36. ©2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Imagery Theories Magill notes that at present, there are no comprehensive theories to explain how imagery enhances performance. Two explanations for imagery effects: Psychoneuromuscular theory – rehearsing skills through imagery strengthens neural pathways used to perform the actual movements Symbolic theory – imagery generates a mental blueprint of the skill’s movements, including the sequence of movements and the timing

37. ©2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Strategies to Enhance Imagery Imagery must be taught correctly and practiced regularly Practice imagery in a variety of circumstances Create rich, vivid, detailed images that are multisensory in nature Focus on rehearsing successful, perfect responses Tailor imagery to the specific needs of the individual Technology can enhance the effectiveness of imagery.