1. Psychological Disorders

2. Anxiety Disorders – Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) Anxiety disorders: when one reacts uncommonly to a certain trigger Started studying PTSD after Vietnam war PTSD patients tend not to suffer solely from PTSD but other disorders like depression Anxiety disorders: when one reacts uncommonly to a certain trigger Started studying PTSD after Vietnam war PTSD patients tend not to suffer solely from PTSD but other disorders like depression

3. Symptoms Affective  Patients numb themselves, resulting in them not being able to feel emotions as much or at all (anhedonia) Behavioural  Nightmares and flashbacks  Participants tend to have an above average reaction when they are startled or fearful, however other than that their behavior is generally passive. Cognitive  Patients have trouble concentrating which is partnered with hyperarousal that results in them displaying other symptoms mentioned here. Somatic  Multiple body pains and problems with the body system.  Insomnia  Regression in children Affective  Patients numb themselves, resulting in them not being able to feel emotions as much or at all (anhedonia) Behavioural  Nightmares and flashbacks  Participants tend to have an above average reaction when they are startled or fearful, however other than that their behavior is generally passive. Cognitive  Patients have trouble concentrating which is partnered with hyperarousal that results in them displaying other symptoms mentioned here. Somatic  Multiple body pains and problems with the body system.  Insomnia  Regression in children

4. Prevalence  In the US  Prevalence of 1% – 3%  Percent of people who have suffered from traumatic events who suffer from PTSD: 15 – 24 (Davidson et al. 2007) (Breslau et al. 1998)  In the US  Prevalence of 1% – 3%  Percent of people who have suffered from traumatic events who suffer from PTSD: 15 – 24 (Davidson et al. 2007) (Breslau et al. 1998)

5. Prevalence – Gender and Culture  Gender Prevalence: suggested that women might experience it more than men because rape and other events are more likely to result in PTSD and rape/ other events is more likely to occur in women.  Life time prevalence (LTP) in men is 5%  10% in women  Cultural Considerations  In societies where traumatic events have been experienced than there is a 9% PTSD prevalence  After 9/11 researchers looked at PTSD prevalence of people, there was a positive correlation between ones closeness to the site of attack and PTSD.  Australian PTSD patients (specifically Vietnam veterans) experience similar symptoms to their American counterparts.  In culture symptoms change because of differences in cultural norms and values.  All cultures experience PTSD because they all suffer from life changing events  Gender Prevalence: suggested that women might experience it more than men because rape and other events are more likely to result in PTSD and rape/ other events is more likely to occur in women.  Life time prevalence (LTP) in men is 5%  10% in women  Cultural Considerations  In societies where traumatic events have been experienced than there is a 9% PTSD prevalence  After 9/11 researchers looked at PTSD prevalence of people, there was a positive correlation between ones closeness to the site of attack and PTSD.  Australian PTSD patients (specifically Vietnam veterans) experience similar symptoms to their American counterparts.  In culture symptoms change because of differences in cultural norms and values.  All cultures experience PTSD because they all suffer from life changing events

6. Biological Etiology  There might be a genetic disposition (Hauff and Vaglum 1994)  Stathmin, GRP (Gastrin-releasing peptide) and the 5 – HTTLPR gene are all genes that play a role in fear response and might have something to do with PTSD>  Noradrenaline: a neurotransmitter that may play a role in PTSD  Plays a role in emotional arousal  Might be increased sensitivity of noradrenaline in PTSD paitients  Geracioti (2001)  Displayed that PTSD paitients have above average levels of noradrenaline in thei bodies  ‘Study revealed that stimulating noradrenaline in paitients 70% experienced panic attacks, and 40% experienced flashbacks’  This didn’t happen in the control group  There might be a genetic disposition (Hauff and Vaglum 1994)  Stathmin, GRP (Gastrin-releasing peptide) and the 5 – HTTLPR gene are all genes that play a role in fear response and might have something to do with PTSD>  Noradrenaline: a neurotransmitter that may play a role in PTSD  Plays a role in emotional arousal  Might be increased sensitivity of noradrenaline in PTSD paitients  Geracioti (2001)  Displayed that PTSD paitients have above average levels of noradrenaline in thei bodies  ‘Study revealed that stimulating noradrenaline in paitients 70% experienced panic attacks, and 40% experienced flashbacks’  This didn’t happen in the control group

7. Cognitive Etiology  PTSD paitients  Feel a lack of control over their life  Feel like life is unpredictable  Experience feelings of guilt towards the trauma  Get intrusive memories  Cue dependent memory (Brewin 1996)  PTSD is developed by patient attributing failure to themselves, they do not have the coping capacity to deal with the stress so instead they shift the focus to emotions and not the issue at hand.  If one doesn’t take personal responsibility they don’t suffer from PTSD or are able to overcome it – (Sutker at al 1995)  It is related to attribution style and schema processing  Also related to victims appraisal of the event  PTSD paitients will constantly see the traumatic event as a threat  This means the are unable to get over the even experiencing stress and trauma because of it.  PTSD paitients  Feel a lack of control over their life  Feel like life is unpredictable  Experience feelings of guilt towards the trauma  Get intrusive memories  Cue dependent memory (Brewin 1996)  PTSD is developed by patient attributing failure to themselves, they do not have the coping capacity to deal with the stress so instead they shift the focus to emotions and not the issue at hand.  If one doesn’t take personal responsibility they don’t suffer from PTSD or are able to overcome it – (Sutker at al 1995)  It is related to attribution style and schema processing  Also related to victims appraisal of the event  PTSD paitients will constantly see the traumatic event as a threat  This means the are unable to get over the even experiencing stress and trauma because of it.

8. Sociocultural Etiology  Experiences with racism and oppression make someone more likely to experience PTSD  Social Learning theory may play a role in PTSD  Social support can decrease PTSD symptoms  Childhood factors also play a role  Level of education  Whether or not one was abused  Higher prevalence of female PTSD paitients than males  Might be because women internalize problems while men externalize thekm.  These factors play a small difference alone but together it is a different story  Experiences with racism and oppression make someone more likely to experience PTSD  Social Learning theory may play a role in PTSD  Social support can decrease PTSD symptoms  Childhood factors also play a role  Level of education  Whether or not one was abused  Higher prevalence of female PTSD paitients than males  Might be because women internalize problems while men externalize thekm.  These factors play a small difference alone but together it is a different story

9. Diasthesis stress model  A combination of stress, environmental factors and a biological predisposition can manifest in PTSD.

10. Eating Disorders – Bulimia nervosa Eating disorders: Ones utilization of unhealthy eating practices that cause them to over-eat or under-eat like anorexia, bulimia and binge-eating Paitients with Bulimia might also suffer from depression Eating disorders: Ones utilization of unhealthy eating practices that cause them to over-eat or under-eat like anorexia, bulimia and binge-eating Paitients with Bulimia might also suffer from depression

11. Symptoms  Affective  Their self-esteem is heavily associated with their body image, which might lead to low self-esteem  Feel shame  Behavioural  Binge eating (eating more than what one normally would eat in one sitting or in one day)  Followed by extreme weight loss methods like purging food and above recommended levels of laxatives or excericise.  For it to be classified as Bulimia it must occur more at least once a week.  Cognitive  Focus on diet and nutrition and maintaining a diet that keeps one thin, making sure that they do not become over weight  Often due to a negative view of themselves and their body  Over –stress about things  Somatic  ‘Swollen salivary glands, erosion of tooth enamel, loss of stomach acid’ (which leads to other potassium deficiency related problems)  Affective  Their self-esteem is heavily associated with their body image, which might lead to low self-esteem  Feel shame  Behavioural  Binge eating (eating more than what one normally would eat in one sitting or in one day)  Followed by extreme weight loss methods like purging food and above recommended levels of laxatives or excericise.  For it to be classified as Bulimia it must occur more at least once a week.  Cognitive  Focus on diet and nutrition and maintaining a diet that keeps one thin, making sure that they do not become over weight  Often due to a negative view of themselves and their body  Over –stress about things  Somatic  ‘Swollen salivary glands, erosion of tooth enamel, loss of stomach acid’ (which leads to other potassium deficiency related problems)

12. Prevalence  Mostly triggered between the late teens and early adult years.

13. Prevalence  Gender Prevalence  2 – 3% of women have bulimia in the US  0.02 – 0.03 % of men have bulimian in the US  Cultural Prevalence  Certain individuals believe that Bulimia is specific to industrialized countries  However empirical evidence shows that eating disorders are increasing in non-western countries  However research hasn’t really spread to developed countries  LTP in Iran is 3.2%  Gender Prevalence  2 – 3% of women have bulimia in the US  0.02 – 0.03 % of men have bulimian in the US  Cultural Prevalence  Certain individuals believe that Bulimia is specific to industrialized countries  However empirical evidence shows that eating disorders are increasing in non-western countries  However research hasn’t really spread to developed countries  LTP in Iran is 3.2%

14. Biological Etiology Genetics  Studies show that genetics play a role  Identical twins have a higher concordance rate for Bulimia than fraternal twins (Kendler et al 1991)  Women who have close relatives that have bulimia are ten times more likely to get it Bulimia than the average person. Biochemicals (neurotransmitters and hormones)  Serotonin  Sends signals to the body telling it is full  Decreased levels of serotonin in Bulimia patients  Decreased levels of noradrenaline  Decreased levels of cholecystokinin  Combination of other hormone changes that result in stress and change eating habits Genetics  Studies show that genetics play a role  Identical twins have a higher concordance rate for Bulimia than fraternal twins (Kendler et al 1991)  Women who have close relatives that have bulimia are ten times more likely to get it Bulimia than the average person. Biochemicals (neurotransmitters and hormones)  Serotonin  Sends signals to the body telling it is full  Decreased levels of serotonin in Bulimia patients  Decreased levels of noradrenaline  Decreased levels of cholecystokinin  Combination of other hormone changes that result in stress and change eating habits

15. Cognitive Etiology  Body-image distortion hypothesis (Bruch 1902) (Slade and Brodie 1994)  Eating disorder paitients are unclear about their body specifically it’s shape and size so when they are asked to evaluate or appraise their body instead of making an accurate estimate they over- estimate  Cognitive Disinhibition  This is a result of thinking in absolutes (dichotomous thinking)  People with eating disorders follow strict diets and when they break the diet it results in some serious repercussions like binge eating.  Body-image distortion hypothesis (Bruch 1902) (Slade and Brodie 1994)  Eating disorder paitients are unclear about their body specifically it’s shape and size so when they are asked to evaluate or appraise their body instead of making an accurate estimate they over- estimate  Cognitive Disinhibition  This is a result of thinking in absolutes (dichotomous thinking)  People with eating disorders follow strict diets and when they break the diet it results in some serious repercussions like binge eating.

16. Sociocultural Etiology  Media is an influence and acts as a gate keeper telling us what the ideal body image is.  As the people who are in the media and represent this body image change (celebrities) the ideal image changes  People suffer from an unneccesssary pressure to aacheive this ideal image  As the years have gone by the ideal body image has become more unrealistic getting thinner and thinner. Even though only 5% of people can achieve this image.  Results in increases in Bulimia in Eurpoe, US and Japan  More and more people want to become what the media encourages them to become  This media influence is really applicable for women and occurs mostly for them. Howerver:  Men are being influenced more and more now to have more athletic builds  Female children rceive distorted views on body expectations from their dolls.  Media is an influence and acts as a gate keeper telling us what the ideal body image is.  As the people who are in the media and represent this body image change (celebrities) the ideal image changes  People suffer from an unneccesssary pressure to aacheive this ideal image  As the years have gone by the ideal body image has become more unrealistic getting thinner and thinner. Even though only 5% of people can achieve this image.  Results in increases in Bulimia in Eurpoe, US and Japan  More and more people want to become what the media encourages them to become  This media influence is really applicable for women and occurs mostly for them. Howerver:  Men are being influenced more and more now to have more athletic builds  Female children rceive distorted views on body expectations from their dolls.

17. Bibliography Information Hannibal eText - Hannibal, J. (2012). Psychology for the IB diploma. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Information Hannibal eText - Hannibal, J. (2012). Psychology for the IB diploma. Oxford: Oxford University Press.