2.  The OED defines contribution as: The part played by a person or thing in bringing about a result or helping something to advance. “the major contribution of social scientists to the understanding of political life” “there was scarcely a branch of art to which Leonardo de Vinci did not make a contribution”

3.  When a researcher undertakes a PhD or publishes a paper, they must show they are making an original contribution to research.  What does this mean?  They have added (usually in a very small way) to the body of knowledge about a subject. This can mean by focussing very narrowly on a topic (the use of modal verbs in Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet) or applying an established theory to a new situation.

4.  1. Has it influenced other thinkers?  2. Has it started a new way of thinking about the subject?  3. Has it invented a new way of collecting or analysing data?  4. Is it a core theory that you have studied ( or will study) in your discipline?  These are highly unusual and would only be pertinent to seminal works.

5.  1. Has it been cited and used as an example by lots of other researchers? Have other writers used it to influence their own work?  2. Does it have a real world application?  3. Does it build on other research by applying an established theory to a new topic or a new situation?  4. Does it make any contributions to society or government policy?  Can you think of examples of how this might be done in your field?

6.  Most researchers will acknowledge the limitations of their own work in the discussion section of an article.  You can also find criticisms of the article/ theory/author in other’s work (if you use the right search terms!)  You can think about some of the weaknesses of the research yourself…. * But do try to supplement your ideas with sources

7.  1. Is the methodology appropriate for the study? (e.g. a questionnaire to find out whether people eat healthier after exercise)  2. Are the findings/ theories of the study supported by other writers or are they criticised?  3. Do the ideas only apply to one context (e.g. male university students in Shanghai) or are they generalisable to other contexts?

8.  Research indicates that the quality of teaching directly affects student achievement and identifies the teacher as the single most important factor that impacts student learning. In fact, the gain in subject grades over three years for students with the most effective teachers has been shown to be as much as 54 points higher than that of students with the least effective teachers.  Marzano, R.J. (2003). What works in schools: Translating research into action. Virginia: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.  Can you think of any problems or criticisms of this research finding about teachers’ effectiveness?  Do you think there are other factors which contribute to students’ improved grades?

9.  Other factors?? E.g. students’ own responsibility, outside help like getting a tutor?  How was teacher effectiveness measured? Can we measure ‘effectiveness’?  Research took place over three years. would results still be same over smaller time period?

10.  1. Karl Marx’s Das Kapital  2. An article on how marketing strategies of Coca Cola can be applied to a new brand of soft drink in the developing world (published 2012)  3. A case study of child adoption law in the EU and its impacts on one family in Ukraine.  4. A thematic analysis of American Wild West films and their impact on masculine identity.

11.  1. Karl Marx’s Das Kapital – read what others say about Marx’s theories both in support and in criticism. Consider the way Marx’s theories have been used in the real world. Have there been any changes in economic thinking?  2. An article on how marketing strategies of Coca Cola can be applied to a new brand of soft drink in the developing world (published 2012)- look to see if anyone has cited this research. If not, analyse its methodology and think about the theories it has used itself. Has it made a contribution to society? Do the authors acknowledge any weaknesses? Have there been any similar studies recently?  3. A case study of child adoption law in the EU and its impacts on one family in Ukraine.- what are the claims being made about the impacts( + or -)? Have similar studies been done either in the Ukraine or in other countries which support these claims? How accurate are its methods of argument> has anyone cited this study? Does it make any suggestions or recommendations for changes in the law?  4. A thematic analysis of American Wild West films and their impact on masculine identity. – is the analysis accurate and do you agree( this is subjective!)? Do other academics agree? What are the claims about impact being made? Do they consider other factors? Are there other interpretations of these movies other than in terms of gender?

12.  Unreal conditionals- used for a past situation that cannot be changed now  If the writer had used a wider sample, it would have been more statistically significant  Hedging- used to make cautious claims or criticisms  It is possible/likely that..  may/might/could etc