1. Aggression in sport It is important, in the study of aggression, to distinguish between different types of aggressive behaviour that may occur Hostile aggression * The motive is to harm an opponent * The chief intention of the aggressor is to inflict injury * Aggressive actions are outside the rules of the game * Hostile aggression is dysfunctional in the context of any sport * Anger is involved

2. Instrumental or channelled aggression * There is intention to harm * The chief motivation is to gain an unfair advantage over your opponent * Anger is not in evidence

3. Assertion * Does not intend to harm * The chief motivation is to complete the skill * It is within the rules and spirit of the game * It involves robust and forceful play * Assertion is functional play

4. Definitions of Aggression (1) Hostile Aggression Hostile Aggression Instrumental Aggression Instrumental Aggression Assertive Behaviour Assertive Behaviour Zidane – World Cup 2006 Zidane – World Cup 2006 Zidane – World Cup 2006 Zidane – World Cup 2006

5. Violence by performers Chris Kamara became the first professional footballer to be fined by a court for an on-pitch assault in February 1988. Kamara, who broke the cheekbone of Shrewsbury Town's Jim Melrose, was fined £1,200. Chris Kamara became the first professional footballer to be fined by a court for an on-pitch assault in February 1988. Kamara, who broke the cheekbone of Shrewsbury Town's Jim Melrose, was fined £1,200. Duncan Ferguson served 44 days of a three-month jail sentence in 1995. He was found guilty, while a Rangers player, of head-butting Raith Rovers' John McStay during a match. Duncan Ferguson served 44 days of a three-month jail sentence in 1995. He was found guilty, while a Rangers player, of head-butting Raith Rovers' John McStay during a match.

6. Football Roy Keane broke Alf Inge Haalands leg after having received a foul in a previous game (Stated in his autobiography that he did it on purpose and got suspended) Roy Keane broke Alf Inge Haalands leg after having received a foul in a previous game (Stated in his autobiography that he did it on purpose and got suspended) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7XS2A NV5Wjg http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7XS2A NV5Wjg http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7XS2A NV5Wjg http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7XS2A NV5Wjg

7. Manchester United's Eric Cantona was sentenced to two weeks in prison in 1995 for kung-fu kicking an abusive Crystal Palace supporter. The sentence was reduced to community service on appeal. Manchester United's Eric Cantona was sentenced to two weeks in prison in 1995 for kung-fu kicking an abusive Crystal Palace supporter. The sentence was reduced to community service on appeal. Eric Cantona Eric Cantona Eric Cantona Eric Cantona

8. El Hadj Diouf, then with Liverpool, was fined £5,000 by Glasgow Sheriff Court in 2003 after being found guilty of assault - by spitting - on a Celtic fan during a UEFA Cup match. El Hadj Diouf, then with Liverpool, was fined £5,000 by Glasgow Sheriff Court in 2003 after being found guilty of assault - by spitting - on a Celtic fan during a UEFA Cup match.

9. Team-mates fighting Kieron Dyer vs Lee Bowyer (2005) Kieron Dyer vs Lee Bowyer (2005) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AFLeT m46CqQ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AFLeT m46CqQ

11. Ice Hockey 2000 - Marty McSorley of the Boston Bruins hit Vancouver Canuck Donald Brashear in the head with his stick in the waning moments of the game, after losing a fight to Brashear earlier in the game. McSorley was convicted of assault with a weapon and given an 18-month conditional discharge. 2000 - Marty McSorley of the Boston Bruins hit Vancouver Canuck Donald Brashear in the head with his stick in the waning moments of the game, after losing a fight to Brashear earlier in the game. McSorley was convicted of assault with a weapon and given an 18-month conditional discharge.Marty McSorleyVancouver CanuckDonald BrashearMarty McSorleyVancouver CanuckDonald Brashear http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9Yvt0B4R XWc http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9Yvt0B4R XWc http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9Yvt0B4R XWc http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9Yvt0B4R XWc

12. Rugby British and Irish Lions flanker Neil Back was handed a four-week ban by the Rugby Football Union after intentionally punching his England team-mate Joe Worsley. Worsley needed 13 stitches but there was no suggestion of criminal proceedings. British and Irish Lions flanker Neil Back was handed a four-week ban by the Rugby Football Union after intentionally punching his England team-mate Joe Worsley. Worsley needed 13 stitches but there was no suggestion of criminal proceedings.

15. Antecedents of aggression Task 2. Discuss with a partner and come up with a list of all the possible causes of aggressive behaviour in sport. Antecedents of aggression Excessive arousal levels Hostile crowds Frustration with self or others Heavy loss Extrinsic rewards Grudges with rivals Contact sports Venue

16. Theories of aggression A number of theories have been put forward to explain the causes of aggression in sport They fall under one of the following categories 1.Trait theories – Nature -the cause comes from genetic, inherited personality traits – 2.Social learning theories – Nurture. The cause comes form observing and copying the behaviour of significant others. 3.Interactionist perspectives – a combination of both above

17. Trait theory of aggression Developed form the work of Freud and then Lorenz It suggests that aggression is genetically inherited A trait of violence lies within everyone Aggressive energy is constantly building up and needs to be released Sport can be a way of releasing aggression in a positive way ( channelled aggression) or negative ( hostile aggression)

18. Social learning theory Based on the work of Bandura Suggests that aggression is nurtured through the environment Aggression is learned from observing and copying high status role models. If the aggressive behaviour is reinforced it becomes an accepted mode of behaviour and becomes part of their behaviour

19. Interactionist theories 1. Frustration aggression hypothesis Drive to a goal Obstacle to goal FrustrationAggression Punishment Success Catharsis

20. Interactionist theory 2. Aggressive cue hypothesis FrustrationIncreased arousal Presence of aggressive cues Increased Chance of aggression Absence of aggressive cues Decreased chance of aggression

21. Methods to eliminate aggressive behaviour Task 3. In your groups suggest ways in which a coach might try to eliminate aggressive behaviour in a player Positively reinforce non aggressive behaviour Punish aggressive play Withdraw/ substitute player Change the athlete’s attitude - show detrimental effect upon rest of team Set process rather than outcome goals Implement stress management/relaxation techniques Lower arousal levels Reward non – aggressive role models Attribute success to skill not intimidation

22. Exam Questions 1.Explain why aggressive behaviour may occur in sport. (5 marks) 2.What can a referee do to control aggression during a sporting competition? (3 marks) 3.Players in contact sports often display both aggressive and assertive behaviours. Distinguish between aggressive and assertive behaviour. (3 marks) 4.Using your knowledge of interactionist theories, discuss the idea that playing contact sports may increase or reduce aggressive behaviour within the game situation. (6 marks)