1. Theories of Child Development
Jean Piaget • Lev Vygotsky Abraham Maslow • B.F. Skinner • Erik Erickson • Howard Gardner

2. Why Study Child & Parenting Development Theories?
Theories help people:
Organize their ideas about raising children.
Understand influences on parenting.
Discover more than one way to interact with children.
Analyze the benefits and consequences of using more than one theory.

3. Why Study the Selected Theories?
Have been popular and influential.
Represent different approaches to parent- child interaction.
Offer help in the “real world” of daily child- rearing.
Make good common sense.

4. Child Development Definition: Periods of development:
Change in the child that occurs over time. Changes follow an orderly pattern that moves toward greater complexity and enhances survival.
Periods of development:
Prenatal period: from conception to birth
Infancy and toddlerhood: birth to 2 years
Early childhood: 2-6 years old
Middle childhood: 6-12 years old
Adolescence: years old

5. Domains of Development
Development is described in three domains, but growth
in one domain influences the other domains.
Physical Domain:
body size, body proportions, appearance, brain development, motor development, perception capacities, physical health.
Cognitive Domain:
thought processes and intellectual abilities including attention, memory, problem solving, imagination, creativity, academic and everyday knowledge, metacognition, and language.
Social/Emotional Domain:
self-knowledge (self-esteem, metacognition, sexual identity, ethnic identity), moral reasoning, understanding and expression of emotions, self-regulation, temperament, understanding others, interpersonal skills, and friendships.

6. 6th - 15th centuries Medieval period
Preformationism: children seen as little adults.
Childhood is not a unique phase.
Children were cared for until they could begin caring for themselves, around 7 years old.
Children treated as adults (e.g. their clothing,
worked at adult jobs, could be
married, were made into
kings, were imprisoned or
hanged as adults.)

7. 16th Century Reformation period
Puritan religion influenced how children were viewed.
Children were born evil, and must be civilized.
A goal emerged to raise children effectively.
Special books were designed for children.

8. 17th Century Age of Enlightenment
John Locke believed in tabula rasa
Children develop in response to nurturing.
Forerunner of behaviorism
locke-john.jpg

9. 18th Century Age of Reason
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
children were noble savages, born with an innate sense of morality; the timing of growth should not be interfered with.
Rousseau used the idea of stages of development.
Forerunner of maturationist beliefs

10. 19th Century Industrial Revolution
Charles Darwin
theories of natural selection and survival of the fittest
Darwin made parallels between human prenatal growth and other animals.
Forerunner of ethology

11. 20th Century
Theories about children's development expanded around the world.
Childhood was seen as worthy of special attention.
Laws were passed to protect children,

12. Psychoanalytical Theories
Beliefs focus on the formation of personality. According to this approach, children move through various stages, confronting conflicts between biological drives and social expectations.

13. Sigmund Freud Was based on his therapy with troubled adults.
Psychosexual Theory
Was based on his therapy with troubled adults.
He emphasized that a child's personality is formed by the ways which his parents managed his sexual and aggressive drives.

14. Psychoanalytic Theories:
Freud’s Psychosexual Theory
Personality has 3 parts
There are 5 stages of psychosexual development
Oedipus complex allows child to identify with same-sex parent
Fixation is an unresolved
conflict during a stage of
development

15. Freudian Stages Birth to 1½ yrs 1½ to 3 yrs 3 to 6 years
6 yrs to puberty
Puberty onward
Oral Stage
Infant’s
pleasure
centers on
mouth
Anal Stage
Child’s
pleasure
focuses on
anus
Phallic
Stage
Child’s
pleasure
focuses on
genitals
Latency
Stage
Child
represses
sexual
interest
and develops
social and
intellectual
skills
Genital
Stage
A time of
sexual
reawakening;
source of
pleasure
becomes
someone
outside of the
family
Figure 2.1

16. Erik Erikson Psychosocial Theory Expanded on Freud's theories.
Believed that development is life-long.
Emphasized that at each stage, the child acquires attitudes and skills resulting from the successful negotiation of the psychological conflict.

17. Psychosocial Theory of Human Development – Erik Erikson
Life is a series of stages. Each individual must pass through each stage. The way in which a person handles each of these stages affects the person’s identity and self-concept. These psychosocial stages are:
Trust vs. mistrust (birth to 1 year)
Autonomy vs. shame & doubt (2 to 3 years)
Initiative vs. guilt (4 to 5 years)
Industry vs. inferiority (6 to 11 years)
Identity vs. role confusion (12 to 18 years)
Intimacy vs. isolation (young adulthood)
Generativity vs. stagnation (middle adulthood)
Integrity vs. despair (older adulthood)
Psychosocial Theory of Human Development – Erik Erikson

18. Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory of Human Development
Ego Integrity vs. Despair
Generativity vs. Stagnation
Intimacy vs. Isolation
Identity vs. Role Confusion
Industry vs. Inferiority
Initiative vs. Guilt
Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt
Trust vs. Mistrust

19. Critique of Erik Erikson
Supporters of this Eriksonian theory, suggest that those best equipped to resolve the crisis of early adulthood are those who have most successfully resolved the crisis of adolescence.
On the other hand, Erikson's theory may be questioned as to whether his stages must be regarded as sequential, and only occurring within the age ranges he suggests. There is debate as to whether people only search for identity during the adolescent years or if one stage needs to happen before other stages can be completed.
Most empirical research into Erikson has stemmed around his views on adolescence and attempts to establish identity. His theoretical approach was studied and supported, particularly regarding adolescence, by James E. Marcia.[1] Marcia's work has distinguished different forms of identity, and there is some empirical evidence that those people who form the most coherent self-concept in adolescence are those who are most able to make intimate attachments in early adulthood. This supports Eriksonian theory, in that it suggests that those best equipped to resolve the crisis of early adulthood are those who have most successfully resolved the crisis of adolescence.
On the other hand, Erikson's theory may be questioned as to whether his stages must be regarded as sequential, and only occurring within the age ranges he suggests. There is debate as to whether people only search for identity during the adolescent years or if one stage needs to happen before other stages can be completed.

20. Beliefs that describe how children learn
Cognitive Theories
Beliefs that describe how children learn

21. Jean Piaget
The behavior of children and the development of their thinking can only be explained by the interaction of nature (intrinsic development) and nurture (extrinsic environmental factors).
Goal of cognitive development
– Biological survival
Cognitive development as biological adaptation
– Adaptation of mental constructs from experiences
– Learner as ‘the little scientist’
Knowledge originates from the environment
– Assimilation + accommodation lead to equilibrium
– Cognitive development involves active selection, interpretation, and construction of knowledge

22. Cognitive Development Theory
Two processes are essential for development:
Assimilation
Learning to understand events or objects, based on existing structure.
Accommodation
Expanding understanding,
based on new information.
Jean Piaget ( )

23. Piaget
Children pass through specific stages as they develop their Cognitive Development skills:
Sensorimotor – birth - 2 years – infants develop their intellect
Preoperational – 2-7 years – children begin to think symbolically and imaginatively
Concrete operational – 7-12 years – children learn to think logically
Formal operational – 12 years – adulthood – adults develop critical thinking skills

24. Lev Vygotsky - 1896-1934 Main points
The cultures in which children are raised and the ways in which they interact with people influence their intellectual development. From their cultural environments, children learn values, beliefs, skills, and traditions that they will eventually pass on to their own children. Through cooperative play, children learn to behave according to the rules of their cultures. Learning is an active process. Learning is constructed.
Main points
Development is primarily driven by language, social context and adult guidance.

25. What is Zone of Proximal Development?
It is a range of tasks that a child cannot yet do alone but can accomplish when assisted by a more skilled partner.
There is a zone of proximal development for each task. When learners are in the zone, they can benefit from the teacher’s assistance.
Learners develop at different rates so they may differ in their ability to benefit from instructions.

28. What is: Scaffolding
Assistance that allows students to complete tasks that they are not able to complete independently.
Effective scaffolding is responsive to students’ needs. In classroom, teachers’ provide scaffolding by:
Breaking content into manageable pieces
Modeling skills
Provide practice and examples with prompts
Letting go when students are ready

29. Belief that heredity and innate biological processes govern growth
Biological Theories
Belief that heredity and innate biological processes govern growth

30. Maturationists: G. Stanley Hall and Arnold Gesell
Believed there is a predetermined biological timetable.
Hall and Gesell were proponents of the normative approach to child study: using age-related averages of children's growth and behaviors to define what is normal.

31. Ethology
Examines how behavior is determined by a species' need for survival.
Has its roots in Charles Darwin's research.
Describes a "critical period" or "sensitive period,” for learning

32. Konrad Lorenz
Ethologist, known for his research on imprinting.

33. Attachment Theory
John Bowlby applied ethological principles to his theory of attachment.
Attachment between an infant and her caregiver can insure the infant’s survival.

34. Behavioral and Social Learning Theories
Beliefs that describe the importance of the environment and nurturing in the growth of a child

35. John Watson
Early 20th century, "Father of American Behaviorist theory.”
Based his work on Pavlov's experiments on the digestive system of dogs.
Researched classical conditioning
Children are passive beings who can be molded by controlling the stimulus-response associations.

36. B. F. Skinner
Proposed that children "operate" on their environment, operational conditioning.
Believed that learning could be broken down into smaller tasks, and that offering immediate rewards for accomplishments would stimulate further learning.

37. Theory of Behaviorism- B.F Skinner & others
Based on Locke’s tabula rasa (“clean slate”) idea, Skinner theorized that a child is an “empty organism” --- that is, an empty vessel --- waiting to be filled through learning experiences.
Any behavior can be changed through the use of positive and negative reinforcement. Behaviorism is based on cause-and-effect relationships.

38. Classical Conditioning
In a now classic experiment, Pavlov first performed a minor operation on a dog to relocate its salivary duct to the outside of its cheek, so that drops of saliva could be more easily measured. The dog, which was food deprived, was then harnessed in an apparatus to keep it steady in order to collect saliva. Periodically, a bell was rang, followed shortly thereafter by meat being placed in the hungry dog's mouth. Meat causes a hungry dog to salivate, whereas rings have little effect. The dog's salivation to meat is an unconditioned reflex - it is in-born, in that dogs do not have to learn to salivate when food is placed in their mouths. Initially, the dog shows little responsiveness to the bell rings. Over time, however, the dog comes to salivate at the sounding of the bell rings alone. When this occurs, Pavlovian conditioning or classical conditioning has occurred, in that a new, or conditioned, reflex has developed. This confirmed Pavlov theory that the dog had associated the bell ringing with the food.
Pavlov's Dogs

39. Major elements of behaviorism include:
Positive and negative reinforcement
Use of stimulus and response
Modeling
Conditioning.
In psychology, reinforcement refers to the procedure of presenting or removing a stimulus to maintain or increase the likelihood of a behavioral response. (A stimulus is something that causes a response.) Reinforcement is usually divided into two types: positive and negative.
If a stimulus is presented immediately after a behavior and that stimulus increases the probability that the behavior will occur again, the stimulus is called a positive reinforcer. Giving a child candy for cleaning his or her room is an example of a positive reinforcer. The child will learn to clean his or her room (behavior) more often in the future, believing he or she will receive something positive—the candy (stimulus)—in return.
Like positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement increases the likelihood that a behavior associated with it will be continued. However, a negative reinforcer is an unpleasant stimulus that is removed after a behavioral response. Negative reinforcers can range from uncomfortable physical sensations to actions causing severe physical distress. Taking aspirin for a headache is an example of negative reinforcement. If a person's headache (stimulus) goes away after taking aspirin (behavior), then it is likely that the person will take aspirin for headaches in the future.
Classical conditioning
Reinforcement as a theoretical concept in psychology can be traced back to Russian scientist Ivan P. Pavlov (1849–1936), who studied conditioning and learning in animals in the early 1900s. Pavlov developed the general procedures and terminology for studying what is now called classical conditioning. While studying the salivary functions of dogs, Pavlov noticed that they began to salivate just before he began to feed them. He concluded that salivating in anticipation of the food was a learned response. To further prove this theory, Pavlov conducted an experiment. Just before he gave a dog food, Pavlov rang a bell. After pairing the bell and food several times, Pavlov just rang the bell. He discovered that the sound of the bell alone was enough to make the dogs salivate.
Pavlov labeled the food an unconditional stimulus because it reliably (unconditionally) led to salivation. He called the salivation an unconditional response. The bell tone was a conditioned stimulus because the dog did not salivate in response to the bell until he had been conditioned to do so through repeated pairings with the food. The salivation in response to the bell became a conditioned response.
Classical conditioning thus occurs when a person or animal forms an association between two events. One event need not immediately follow the other. What is important is that one event predicts or brings about the other. An example of classical conditioning in humans can be seen in a trip to the dentist's office. On a person's first visit, the sound of the drill signifies nothing to that person until the dentist begins to use the drill. The pain and discomfort of having a tooth drilled is then remembered by that person on the subsequent visit. The sound of the drill is enough to produce a feeling of anxiety, tensed muscles, and sweaty palms in that person even before the dentist has begun to use the drill.
Words to Know
Classical conditioning: A type of conditioning or learning in which a stimulus that brings about a behavioral response is paired with a neutral stimulus until that neutral stimulus brings about the response by itself.
Operant conditioning: A type of conditioning or learning in which a person or animal learns to perform or not perform a particular behavior based on its positive or negative consequences.
Primary reinforcers: Stimuli such as food, water, and shelter that satisfy basic needs.
Secondary reinforcers: Stimuli that have come to provide reinforcement through their association with primary reinforcers.
Stimulus: Something that causes a behavioral response.
B.F. Skinner
Albert Bandura
Ivan Pavlov

40. Skinner Box Operant Conditioning
In classical conditioning, the learned responses are reflexes, such as salivating or sweating. The stimuli (food or a dentist's drill) bring about these responses automatically. In operant conditioning, the learned behavioral responses are voluntary. A person or animal learns to perform or not perform a particular behavior based on its positive or negative consequences.
American behavioral psychologist B. F. Skinner (1904–1990) conducted experiments during the 1930s and 1940s to prove that human and animal behavior is based not on independent motivation but on response to reward and punishment. Skinner designed an enclosed, soundproof box equipped with tools, levers, and other devices. In this box, which came to be called the Skinner box, he taught rats to push buttons, pull strings, and press levers to receive a food or water reward.
This type of procedure and the resultant conditioning have become known as operant conditioning. The term "operant" refers to behaviors that respond to, or operate on, the surrounding environment. From his experiments, Skinner developed the theory that humans are controlled (stimulated) solely by forces in their environment. Rewarded behavior (positive reinforcement) is encouraged, and unrewarded behavior (negative reinforcement) is terminated.
Operant Conditioning

41. Social Learning Theory
Albert Bandura
Stressed how
children learn
by observation
and imitation.
Believed that
children gradually become more selective in what they imitate.

42. Child imitates behavior
Bandura’s Modeling/Imitation
Child
observes someone
admired
Child imitates behavior
that seems rewarded

43. Systems Theory
The belief that development can't be explained by a single concept, but rather by a complex system.

44. Ecological Systems Theory
Urie Bronfenbrenner
Ecological Systems Theory
The varied systems of the environment and the interrelationships among the systems shape a child's development.
Both the environment and biology influence the child's development.
The environment affects the child and the child influences the environment.

45. Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Model
The microsystem - activities and interactions in the child's immediate surroundings: parents, school, friends, etc.
The mesosystem - relationships among the entities involved in the child's microsystem: parents' interactions with teachers, a school's interactions with the daycare provider
The exosystem - social institutions which affect children indirectly: the parents' work settings and policies, extended family networks, mass media, community resources
The macrosystem - broader cultural values, laws and governmental resources
The chronosystem - changes which occur during a child's life, both personally, like the birth of a sibling and culturally, like the Iraqi war.

46. Theory of Multiple Intelligence Howard Gardner

47. Howard Gardner’s theory
Howard Gardner defines intelligence as "the capacity to solve problems or to fashion products that are valued in one or more cultural setting" (Gardner & Hatch, 1989). Using biological as well as cultural research, he formulated a list of seven intelligences. This new outlook on intelligence differs greatly from the traditional view that usually recognizes only two intelligences, verbal and mathematical.

48. Who is Howard Gardner?
Howard Gardner is a psychologist and Professor at Harvard University's Graduate School of Education.
Based on his study of many people, Gardner developed the theory of multiple intelligences.
Gardner defines intelligence as “ability to solve problems or to create products which are valued in one or more cultural settings.”
According to Gardner, 8 different types of intelligence are displayed by humans.

49. Gardner’s Intelligences:

50. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence
consists of the ability to:
detect patterns
reason deductively
think logically
This intelligence is most often associated with scientific and mathematical thinking.
Famous examples: Albert Einstein, John Dewey.

51. Linguistic Intelligence
involves having a mastery of language
This intelligence includes the ability to effectively manipulate language to express oneself rhetorically or poetically.
It also allows one to use language as a means to remember information.
Famous examples: Charles Dickens, Abraham Lincoln, T.S. Eliot, Sir Winston Churchill.

52. Famous examples: Picasso, Frank Lloyd Wright
Spatial Intelligence
gives one the ability to manipulate and create mental images in order to solve problems.
This intelligence is not limited to visual domains--Gardner notes that spatial intelligence is also formed in blind children.
Famous examples: Picasso, Frank Lloyd Wright

53. Famous examples: Mozart, Leonard Bernstein, Ray Charles.
Musical Intelligence
encompasses the capability to recognize and compose musical pitches, tones, and rhythms.
(Auditory functions are required for a person to develop this intelligence in relation to pitch and tone, but these functions would not be needed for the knowledge of rhythm.)
Famous examples: Mozart, Leonard Bernstein, Ray Charles.

54. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence
is the ability to use one's mental abilities to coordinate one's own bodily movements.
This intelligence challenges the popular belief that mental and physical activity are unrelated.
The ability to use your body skillfully to solve problems, create products or present ideas and emotions.
An ability obviously displayed for athletic pursuits, dancing, acting, artistically, or in building and construction.
You can include surgeons in this category but many people who are physically talented–"good with their hands"–don't recognize that this form of intelligence is of equal value to the other intelligences.
Famous examples: Charlie Chaplin, Michael Jordan.

55. Interpersonal Intelligence
The ability to work effectively with others
to relate to other people
display empathy and understanding
notice their motivations and goals.
This is a vital human intelligence displayed by good teachers, facilitators, therapists, politicians, religious leaders and sales people.
Famous examples: Gandhi, Ronald Reagan, Mother Teresa, Oprah Winfrey.

56. Intrapersonal Intelligence
The ability for self-analysis and reflection–to be able to:
quietly contemplate and assess one's accomplishments
review one's behavior and innermost feelings
make plans and set goals
know oneself
Philosophers, counselors, and many peak performers in all fields of endeavor have this form of intelligence.
Famous examples: Freud, Eleanor Roosevelt, Plato.

57. Naturalist intelligence
designates the human ability to discriminate among living things (plants, animals) as well as sensitivity to other features of the natural world (clouds, rock configurations).
to make distinctions in the natural world and to use this ability productively–for example in hunting, farming, or biological science.
Farmers, botanists, conservationists, biologists, environmentalists would all display aspects of the intelligence.
Famous examples: Charles Darwin, Rachel Carson.

58. For example, a dancer can excel in his art only if he/she has
Can we be more than one?
Yes!
Although the intelligences are anatomically separated from each other, Gardner claims that the eight intelligences very rarely operate independently.
Rather, the intelligences are used concurrently and typically complement each other as individuals develop skills or solve problems.
For example, a dancer can excel in his art only if he/she has 
strong musical intelligence to understand the rhythm and variations of the music 
bodily-kinesthetic intelligence to provide him with the agility and coordination to complete the movements successfully
interpersonal intelligence to understand how he can inspire or emotionally move his audience through his movements

59. Maslow’s Theory
Maslow’s theory maintains that a person does not feel a higher need until the needs of the current level have been satisfied. Maslow's basic needs are as follows:

61. Basic Human Needs
Food
Air
Water
Clothing
Sex
Physiological Needs

62. Safety Needs Protection Stability Pain Avoidance Routine/Order
Safety and Security
Protection
Stability
Pain Avoidance
Routine/Order
Safety Needs

63. Love and Belonging
Affection
Acceptance
Inclusion
Social Needs

64. Esteem
Esteem Needs
Self-Respect
Self-Esteem
Respected by Others

65. Self-Actualization
Achieve full potential
Fulfillment