1. Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved Infants, Children, and Adolescents Eighth Edition Chapter 1 History, Theory, and Research Strategies

2. Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved Learning Objectives (1 of 3) 1. What is the field of child development, and what factors stimulated its expansion? 2. How is child development typically divided into domains and periods? 3. What theories influenced child development research in the mid-twentieth century? 4. Describe recent theoretical perspectives on child development. 5. Identify the stand taken by each major theory on the basic issues of child development.

3. Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved Domains of Development DomainChanges in PhysicalBody size & proportions, appearance Functioning of body systems, health Perceptual & motor capacities CognitionIntellectual abilities Emotional and Social Emotional communication Self-understanding, knowledge about others Interpersonal skills & relationships Moral reasoning & behavior

4. Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved Periods of Development PrenatalConception to birth Infancy and Toddlerhood Birth to 2 years Early Childhood2 to 6 years Middle Childhood6 to 11 years Adolescence11 to 18 years Emerging Adulthood18 to mid- to late 20s

5. Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved Theory An orderly, integrated set of statements that describes behavior. explains behavior. predicts behavior.

6. Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved Basic Issues in Development 1.Continuous or discontinuous? 2.One course of development or many possible courses? 3.Relative influence of nature and nurture?

7. Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved Continuous or Discontinuous Development Figure 1.2

8. Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved Nature and Nurture Nature Inborn, biological Based on genetic inheritance Nurture Physical and social world Influences biological and psychological development

9. Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved Stability vs. Plasticity? Stability Individuals high or low in a characteristic remain so at later ages. Early experience may have a lifelong impact. Plasticity Change is possible, based on experiences.

10. Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved Resilient Children Personal characteristics A warm parental relationship Social support outside the immediate family Community resources and opportunities

11. Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved Historical Views of Childhood Medieval EraChildhood (to age 7 or 8) regarded as separate phase with special needs, protections 16th CenturyPuritan “child depravity” views 17th CenturyJohn Locke “tabula rasa” view; continuous development 18th CenturyJean-Jacques Rousseau “noble savages” view; natural maturation

12. Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved Early Scientific Study of Development Evolutionary Theory Darwin’s ideas of natural selection and survival of the fittest are still influential. Normative Approach Hall & Gesell: Age-related averages based on measurements of large numbers of children Mental Testing Movement Binet & Simon: Early developers of intelligence tests

13. Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved Freud’s Three Parts of the Personality IdLargest portion of the mind Unconscious, present at birth Source of biological needs & desires EgoConscious, rational part of personality Emerges in early infancy Redirects id impulses acceptably SuperegoThe conscience Develops from ages 3 to 6, from interactions with caregivers

14. Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages Basic trust v. mistrustBirth–1 year Autonomy v. shame and doubt1–3 years Initiative v. guilt3–6 years Industry v. inferiority6–11 years Identity v. role confusionAdolescence Intimacy v. isolationEmerging adulthood Generativity v. stagnationAdulthood Integrity v. despairOld age

15. Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved Behaviorism & Social Learning Classical Conditioning Stimulus–Response Operant Conditioning Reinforcers and punishments Social-Cognitive Approach Modeling Self-efficacy

16. Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved Social Learning Theory Modeling or Observational Learning A baby claps her hands after her mother does; a teenager dresses like her friends. CognitionStressed today; social- cognitive approach Personal Standards Children begin to believe their own abilities will help them succeed.

17. Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved Limitations of Behaviorism and Social Social Learning Theory Too narrow a view of important environmental influences Underestimates children’s contributions Bandura’s work is unique in that it grants children an active role in their own learning.

18. Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Stage Period of DevelopmentDescription SensorimotorBirth–2 yearsInfants “think” by acting on the world. As a result, they invent ways of solving sensorimotor problems. Preoperational2–7 yearsPreschoolers use symbols, develop language and make-believe play. Thinking still lacks the logic of later stages. Concrete operational 7–11 yearsReasoning becomes logical and better- organized. Thinking is not yet abstract. Formal operational 11 years onAbstract thinking enables use of hypotheses, inferences. Adolescents no longer rely on real- world circumstances for logic problems.

19. Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved Information Processing Human mind as symbol-manipulating system Researchers often design flowcharts to map problem-solving steps

20. Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved Information Processing Figure 1.3 (Based on Thornton, 1999)

21. Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved Medicine Neuroscience Biology Psychology DevelopmentalCognitiveNeuroscience

22. Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved Developmental Neuroscience Uses: Identify links between cognitive and social domains of development Develop interventions for learning and behavioral problems Limitations: Too dependent on brain properties; neglects environmental influences Excessive emphasis on biological processes

23. Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved Ecological Systems Theory Figure 1.4

24. Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved Dynamic Systems Perspective Figure 1.5 (Based on Fischer & Bidell, 2006)

25. Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved Comparing Child Development Theories Theory Continuous or Discontinuous? One Course of Development or Many? Relative Influence of Nature and Nurture? Psychoanalytic perspective DiscontinuousOne courseBoth nature and nurture Behaviorism and social learning theory ContinuousMany possible courses Emphasis on nurture Piaget’s cognitive- developmental theory DiscontinuousOne courseBoth nature and nurture Information processing ContinuousOne courseBoth nature and nurture

26. Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved Comparing Child Development Theories Theory Continuous or Discontinuous? One Course of Development or Many? Relative Influence of Nature and Nurture? Ethology and evolutionary development psychology Both continuous and discontinuous One courseBoth nature and nurture Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory Both continuous and discontinuous Many possible courses Both nature and nurture Ecological systems theory Not specifiedMany possible courses Both nature and nurture Dynamic systems perspective Both continuous and discontinuous Many possible courses Both nature and nurture

27. Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved Correlation Coefficients Magnitude: Strength as indicated by a number between 0 and 1 –Closer to 1 (positive or negative) is a stronger relationship Direction: Indicated by the sign (+ or –) –Positive: As one variable increases, so does the other –Negative: As one variable increases, the other decreases

28. Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved Correlation Coefficients Figure 1.6